Police Concentration
Answer each question and summarize them in 25-50 word paragraphs. Have a
complete bibliography formatted in APA of all citations Use at least 3 citation for each question. Make sure you answer the questions explicitly and clearly. Please include references page .
Police Concentration
Lawrence Sherman (1974) observed that as long as there have been police, there has been police corruption.Discuss how and why does police corruption occur. What factors-within both the community and policing seem to foster and maintain corruption? What is meant by noble cause corruption and the “Dirty Harry problem,” and how do they each relate to Packer’s crime-control and
due process models of law enforcement? Please cite your sources.
1. The majority of police, corrections, and classification officers are public employees. Discuss the rights of public employees (particularly those in criminal justice).How are these rights protected by the United States Constitution and federal laws? Using decided cases whenever possible (a) identify the specific constitutional ‘provisions that have been used by courts to protect the rights of public employees and discuss how these provisions have been used; (b) discuss several (3 or more) federal laws that protect the rights of public employees; and (c) which has afforded better protection to public employees the Constitution of federal laws? Justify your answer.
2. Discuss the concepts of proximate cause, federal acts (including Civil Rights Act, 42 U.S.C. 1983), and seven factors determining police liability in “high-speed pursuits.”
3. The past sixty years or more have seen two dominant trends in the style of American policing. The first was the professional model and the second was community model. List and discus the major characteristics of each model and provide two main strategies of each model.
4. Compare and contrast the rudimentary tenets of the Uniform Crime Report, the National
Incident-based reporting System, and Victimization Surveys.
5. Explain the concepts “community policing” and “team policing” regarding problem solving in police
administration. How does the concept of community policing in contemporary time differ from past police methods? Discuss the significant roles of the police chief, mid-level managers, and first-line-supervisors.
6. The philosophies of policing have changed over the years, requiring a commensurate adjustment in
leadership style and technique. Identify and discuss at least three leadership styles, including their benefits and limitations. Discuss what factors within an organization impacts leadership styles. How would these styles of leadership operate in a criminal justice agency, like police? Would certain environmental conditions favor one style over another?
Criminology Theory Questions
1. Contrast the three schools of Criminology, Include in your discussion the name the founders and
significant proponents. What are their major premises? Name at least three theories belonging to each school.
2. Many adolescents’ commit crimes in groups with co-offenders. Explain the role of delinquent peers in co-offending from three of the following perspectives:
a) Sub-cultural Theory
b) Control Theory
c) Strain Theory
d) Learning Theory
Cite empirical support with your answer and identify specific theories and proponents associated with each selected theory
3. A criminological issue that has been in the public spotlight in the recent years involves youth violence in the schools and the specific issue of bullying. Choose one theory of crime causation (criminology) to explain the existence of either schoolyard shootings or bullying. How do the theorists account for either of the crime (depending on whether you selected school shootings or bullying)?
Research Questions
1. Ethics has become an important question in research and in much academic discipline. Disclose what you know about ethics in research provide your explanation for why it has become an important topic today (in contract with previous years).
2. How might qualitative research methods be combined with quantitative research methods to improve justice research?
3. Distinguish the nature of quantitative research from that of qualitative research. Thoroughly discuss the strengths and weaknesses of both quantitative and qualitative research.
Statistics Questions
1. Distinguish between simple linear regression and multiple linear regression in terms of purpose, model,and assumptions .
2. Logistical regression makes several assumptions. Identify and discuss these assumptions and the
difficulties encountered if these assumptions are violated.
3. Define descriptive and inferential statistics. Provide examples of various techniques from each. What role does the null hypothesis play in statistical inference?
Police Corruption
According to Sherman (1974) police corruption occurs in stages starting from the acceptance free meals due to no legal or moral impropriety, the to accepting bribes not to issue tickets, goes no to accept bribes from those violating gambling laws and finally the officers go on to take narcotic bribes or even engage in narcotics trade after acquiring a hardened conscience. Police corruption occurs in four distinct forms: scale and organization, predatory ways, subversion of justice, and gifts and discounts, which are influenced by several factors (O’Connor, 1974). These factors are inherent in the line of operations, such as the extraordinary and broad discretion given to police officers. The discretion to arrest, determine the grade of offense, and the brotherhood among police officers providing mutual protection provides a breeding ground for corruption.
Noble-cause corruption involves the illegal actions carried out to achieve laudable ends. The activities are done with the presumption that they will achieve a larger social good. One example is the extrajudicial killing of criminals (Cooper, 2012). In reference to Packer’s crime control, noble cause corruption manifests itself through aggressive policing and crime-control attitude. Police officers have two distinct roles of being protectors and agents of the state (Cliff, 2020). As an agent of the country, police actions are bound by procedural laws. In theory, this could be considered as citizens giving the state the power of coercion in exchange for protection. This already causes role conflict due to the question of fulfilling both roles at best.
On the other hand, the “Dirty Harry problem” was a term used by Klockars (1985) to refer to the utilization of dirty means to achieve legitimate ends. Klockars identified the “Dirty Harry Problem” as a moral challenge in the police (Porter & Warrender, 1985). Packer’s due process model focuses on upholding the integrity of human rights, thus following the law to achieve fundamental fairness or justice (Cliff, 2020). In this case, police powers are limited to prevent the oppression of an individual. This is the opposite of the”Dirty Harry problem,” where dirty means need to be used to achieve the required utmost justice. Justice is viewed as a process, but then the ways sometimes could follow the “Dirty Harry” procedure for its achievement.
Rights of Police as Public Employees
The rights of the public employees, in this case, the police include engaging in political activity whenever one is not on duty or any official capacity and should undergo the due process for any allegations of indiscipline (Law Enforcement Officers’ Bill of Rights, n.d.). The due process begins from the time of investigation until the ruling of the disciplinary action. The Law Enforcement Officers’ Bill of Rights protects these rights for law enforcement officers. The Cases of Garrity v. New Jersey (1967) and Gardner v. Broderick (1968). set a precedent for this Bill of Rights.
The Public Employee Rights and Authorization Act is focused on avoiding public employees from forfeiting their speech rights and suffering financial losses. The United States Labor Law outlines the duties and rights of employees, labor unions, and employers. The Public Sector Labor Law that gives public employees the right to engage in collective bargaining (Keefe, 2015). This law has made tremendous progress as by 2010, 63% of them had gained this right.
Question Three
Proximate cause is the “legal cause” or the cause that is recognized by law as the primary cause of injury (Justia, 2018). This is the action that produced the foreseeable consequences without the intervention by something else. In determining the proximate cause, a “but for test” is carried out for that particular event.
Section 1983 of the Civil Rights Act of 1871 has created a federal cause of action against state officials that deprive citizens of their constitutional rights (Heinzerling, 1986). Over time, the courts have tried to define the circumstances under which one will be held liable for failing to act to prevent a particular deprivation. This would impose an affirmative duty of protection, which many courts have avoided.
The factors that determine the police liability in “high-speed pursuits include the degree of care offered by the police to the pursued drivers, the officer’s good faith in complying with departmental procedures in conducting the high-speed chases; acts and how relevant is the plaintiff’s claim in the police negligence case (Zevitz, 1986). Other factors include state laws, the pursuit’s justification, personal and public safety, and the probability of using the alternatives to high chase pursuit (Nugent et al., 1990).
Question Four
The professional model of policing focuses on controlling crime by using technology and scientific personnel management for fairness and impartiality among law enforcers (Dobrin, 2006). The model requires the police to respond to only crime, as that is their sole responsibility. Its strategies are reactive meaning that is implemented after the occurrence of crime. The strategies include police patrols, rapid responses to calls, and after-the-fact investigations (Dobrin, 2006).
The community model of policing is a service-driven model that depends on the police responding to the particular needs of the respective community members (Dobrin, 2006). The police here deal with many public concerns that go beyond just responding to crime. Since the community model will have the police deal with the needs of a specific community, the non-members to this community are not listened to and get treated differently. Strategies used here are transformational organizational initiatives, community partnerships, and shared problem-solving programs (Lebron, 2019).
Question Five
The Uniform Crime Report is focused on generating reliable data that can be used in law enforcement operations. It collects reported information at law enforcement agencies on various crimes such as rape, murder, homicides, assault, human trafficking, among others (National Criminal Justice Reference Service, 2017). The National Crime Victimization Survey is a different methodology to the UCR as its reports are a representative sample of households in the United States (National Criminal Justice Reference Service, 2017). It also collects information on crimes similar to UCR except for homicides, commercial crimes against residents of below 12 years, or crimes against persons from different residences. The two differ in terms of the various purposes they serve. UCR’s primary objective is the provision of reliable criminal justice statistics for law enforcement operations. The NCVS’ goal is to provide previously unavailable information about crime, its victims, and offenders (Uniform Crime Reporting Statistics, n.d). The second difference is on the crimes where NCVS will collect both reported and not reported incidents to law enforcement. UCR captures crimes only reported to law enforcement (Uniform Crime Reporting Statistics, n.d) The National Incident-based reporting system collects and reports data on crimes but is very detailed. This reporting goes way deeper into the context and circumstances of the crimes, unlike the reports mentioned before (FBI, 2018).
Question Six
Team policing was an approach that focused on the delivery of constant patrol services by a team of officers who were under the directions of a sergeant or lieutenant in a particular geographic area (Walsh & Banton, 2019). The policing was introduced in the 1970s in NewYork. The team commanders gave the conditions of the patrol always, and any deployment decisions consulted the leaders and residents. Community policing is based on the premise of the police officer being part of the community, so will be involved in solving the particular community problems apart from preventing and controlling crime (Walsh & Banton, 2019).
Community policing is different from traditional approaches because police officers in the former are now considered part of the communities they serve. The police are not seen as a force coming to control the community but part of a community facing similar issues and wanting to solve them.
The police chief runs the whole police department and responds directly to the mayor or governor. They assess the department’s response to crime and implement improvements to streamline the operations of law enforcement. Mid-level managers will balance the demands of task-oriented leadership and empower the leadership (Hassan, 2018). The first-line supervisors are responsible for managing staff, coordinate training, guide, and Help in administrative and leadership activities (Campbellsville, 2016).
Question Seven
1. Authoritative leadership style in which the entire authority lies in the hands of the leader (Chaitali, 2019). In the police, this kind of leadership is strictly based on rules, prefers order, and sometimes takes the military line approach. Its Benefits include faster decision-making, strong motivation from the leader, and suitability. Its limitations include exploitation of staff, no room for creativity, and no development in leadership skills. This type of leadership works effectively in departments where there is a need for higher quality (Chaitali, 2019).
2. The transactional leadership style relies on a rewards-based system to motivate its employees. Rewards and punishments are given depending on the junior’s performance and adherence to rules (Fritsvold, 2020). The benefit of this kind of leadership is it acts as a motivational factor but could create a type of the wrong culture since individuals must learn to motivate themselves intrinsically.
3. A transformational leadership style is a people-centered approach aiming to inspire, empower, and motivate its team (Fritsvold, 2020). The police taking this approach will have the juniors commit to a mutual vision and objectives for the department. This leadership is beneficial in terms of encouraging innovation and creativity. Nonetheless, it takes longer to make decisions, as many parties are involved (Chaitali, 2019).
Question eight
The three schools of criminology are a classical school, positivist school, and the neo-classicist. The traditional school of criminology was developed in the Enlightenment period to respond to excessive and cruel punishments to crime (SouthEastern University Online, 2019). Beccaria introduced this school stated that there was a need for more humanitarian forms of punishment against physical punishment and death punishment. The sentence needed to fit the crime and not be excessive.
The positivist school is different from the classical understanding of crime. It considers all people are different, and so the knowledge of right and wrong is different. According to Ian Taylor, Paul Walton, and Jock Young, positivism’s function was the systematic elimination of the free will metaphysics of classical school and replaced by a science of society taking the initiative to eradicate crime (SouthEastern University Online, 2019). It entails observing the characteristics of criminals to gain insight to learn the causes of antisocial conduct of behavior. After that, the resolutions are determined from the roots.
The neo-classicist school emerged to deal with some of the challenges of the classical school. The contradictions in the latter school of thought specifically related universal penal measures and the daily practices (SouthEastern University Online, 2019). While classical school depends on the criminal act and ignores individual differences between criminals, neoclassicism states that free will is crucial but can be constrained by physical and environmental factors.
Question Nine
The subcultural theory by Cohen (1955) states that subcultures contain norms, values, and interests associated with them that are derivatives of broad referential culture. With shared values, standards, and identities among the members, they portray a certain kind of behavior that distinguishes them from the larger (Cengage, 2020). More inclusive, social, and cultural systems. For the adolescents that commit crimes in groups of their co-offender, it is because of coming from criminal subcultures that support unlawful conduct. The extent of the crime will depend on the “support” of crime by the subcultures. This also is prevalent in the particular crimes that the adolescents engage in as they will follow those that are supported by the ‘subcultures”.
The Control theory by Hirschi (1969) indicates that individuals are at a level of no goals or means and have no commitment and uncontrolled. The absence of control is what is needed to lead to delinquent behavior (Cengage, 2020). For the adolescents committing the crime in groups, they do not have any forms of control in terms of their own goals and means. This leads to delinquent behaviors, as there are no constraining elements. Apart from the central control, other types required are commitment, involvement in the right things, attachment to close family and friends, and finally, distinct values and principles (Cengage, 2020).
The strain theory by Robert Agnew deals with the relationship between family dynamics and delinquency. It indicates that parental strain leads to parenting practices that increase one likelihood of delinquency (Agnew, Rebellion & Thaxton, 2000). When the child is unable to deal with the strain, then the crime becomes a coping mechanism. For the adolescents committing the crime with other offenders because of coming from communities with poor parenting practices. Poor practices include lack of supervision, extremely harsh discipline, and lack of emotional bonds (Agnew, Rebellion & Thaxton, 2000). It is possible for adolescents with similar challenges to influence each other to do the wrong thing with no one to guide them.
Question Ten
The general strain theory is a practical theory to explain bullying. This theory posits that strain will cause delinquency. Agnew brought in several sources of strain, which included failure to achieve positively valued goals, possible or actual loss of positive stimuli, and presentation of noxious stimuli that is the stressful life events (Moon, Hwang, & McCluskey, 2011). The theory’s other proposition is that strain does cause negative emotions that influence bullying. An individual will experience negative emotions such as anger when treated unjustly or unfairly or are exposed to negative stimuli. For them to correct the situation or fight the negative emotions, then they engage in bullying or other delinquent behaviors (Moon, Hwang, & McCluskey, 2011).
Research Questions
Question Eleven
Ethics in research is the set of rules, both written and unwritten, which govern how all kinds of research are to be performed at research institutions. From an individual point of view, research ethics goes beyond human or animal subjects (Resnik, 2015). It also includes the standards of conduct, such as publishing findings transparently, no plagiarism, and not falsifying any work. The importance of research ethics is that it will promote the aims of the research, it will uphold cooperation and coordination among different persons in distinct disciplines and institutions, and also ensures the researchers are held accountable to the public (Resnik, 2015).
Question Twelve
The reason for using them together is to corroborate or rather to hope to achieve similar outcomes on both methods. Additionally, they could be used for elaboration where the qualitative research will be used to explain the quantitative analysis (Hammerbag, Kirkman & De Lacey, 2016). Complementary reasons are when the results form both methods differ but still generate complementary insights. The contradiction is when the research from both approaches lead to different conclusions. Qualitative and quantitative research methods could be utilized together by social scientists when investigating the psychosocial aspects of human reproduction.
Question Thirteen
Quantitative research provides data that has been expressed in numeric form, thus can be applied to statistical tests in making statements about the data (Madrigal & McClain, 2012). The greatest strength of this research method is the provision of descriptive data (Madrigal & McClain, 2012). This leads to further understanding of the variables and how each of them will affect the outcome. Its weakness is that it can, at times, be superficial compared to qualitative research. Qualitative research entails the qualities or characteristics of something (Madrigal & McClain, 2012). This research provides details on human behavior, emotion, and other personality characteristics. This method is useful in investigating phenomena. The weakness of qualitative research is that it is difficult to perform quantitative analysis when required (Madrigal & McClain, 2012).
Statistical Questions: Question Fourteen
Simple linear regression involves establishing the relationship between two variables using a straight line (Blokhin, 2015). Assumptions in the linear progression of linearity, independence, normality, and homoscedasticity (Boston University School of Public Health, 2016). The model of linear progression has one predictor and one outcome (Malhotra, 2018). When two or more explanatory variables are involved and have a linear relationship, then it is multiple linear regression. The model of the multiple linear regression is that it has more than one predictor and one outcome (Malhotra, 2018). Multiple regression assumes that there is a linear regression between the dependent and independent variables. Another assumption is that the independent variables do not correlate.
Question Fifteen
The assumptions in logistic regression include that it does not need a linear relationship between independent and dependent variables, error terms or residuals do not require normal distribution, homoscedasticity is not required, and the involved dependent variable is not measured on an interval or ratio scale. When the assumptions are not met, the researcher must find the right method of analysis. Violation of the premises would only bring the wrong outcomes.
Question Sixteen
Descriptive statistics are utilized in summarizing data and putting it in a graph for the chosen group. A potentially large number of data points are put into a sample, then reduced to a few meaningful summary values and figures (Frost, 2018). Its standard tools include central tendency, dispersion, and skewness. Inferential statistics is about taking data from a sample and making inferences about the larger population from which the sample was drawn. Its main goal is to draw conclusions from the sample and generalize them to a population (Frost, 2018). Random sampling is a technique used in inferential statistics.
The null hypothesis is a standard statistical theory that suggests that no statistical relationship and significance exists in a set of a particular observed variable between two sets of observed data and measured phenomena (Haldar, 2018).
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