Renewable and Sustainable Resources
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Table of Contents
Renewable and Sustainable Resources 3
Section 1: 3
1.0. Introduction 3
1.1. Historical Background 3
1.2. Commencement of Commercial Solar energy Systems 5
1.3. Recurrent Subsidies by Governments to Boost PV energy Adoption 5
1.4. Historical Use of PV solar energy 6
Section 2: 7
2.0. Building Integrated Photovoltaic Systems 7
2.1. Principles of Applications of BIPV 8
2.2. Consideration of Building Design Considerations 8
2.2.1. Structural factors 8
2.2.2. Environmental factors 9
2.2. Advantages of BIPV systems. 9
2.2.3. Disadvantages of BIPV 10
3.0. Current State of Technology in the Production of BIVP systems 11
3.1. State-by-State Mechanism of advancing PV technology 12
3.2. Numerical Simulation of BIPV Technology 13
3.3. Recent Advances 13
3.4. Future Opportunities & Challenges in developing BIPV? 13
3.5. Predicted/Opinion on the Role of BIPV System compared to other Energy Sources in Future 14
4.0. Recommendations 15
4.1. Conclusion 16
References 17
Renewable and Sustainable Resources
Section 1:
1.0. Introduction
The energy choices made by humankind has significant global implications with effects on the greenhouse gas emissions, mineral consumption and water resources management among others. Renewable energy technologies are highly sustainable that make up the majority of the contemporary sources of energy supplies. Nevertheless, this fact is essential in ensuring that the energy flow is maintained constantly and with sound flow into the global environment. In the prospective energy sustainability, there are a number of mechanisms that are adopted toward enhancing continuous energy flow. These approaches include resource-use optimizations, environmental analysis of externalities, Research and development targets and prospective identification of potential barriers in renewing energy flow discourse. Renewable energy sources are considered multiple-size-fits-all solutions.
Resources are typically distributed geographically. Some regions have more access to renewable energy sources such as sun, wind and lumber than others. This variance is well expressed between regions within the tropics and the Polar regions. Furthermore, the energy use pattern also varies across the globe. The installed infrastructure and growth rates of energy supplies may also limit choices between different energy sources and supplies with regard to prospective exploitation. As a result, there is a significant need to determine the most appropriate approaches through which geographically distributed energy sources can be optimized. On sustainability, there are three main aspects to consider, namely; externalities costs, economics & financing and the environmental factors. This study will focus on the use of the Photovoltaic energy resource.
1.1. Historical Background
The Photovoltaic device generates electric power directly from the solar radiations through an electronic process that develops naturally on particular materials known as semiconductors. The electrons present on such materials are then freed by the solar radiation energy and may be channeled to move through an electric circuit. This process causes the powering of electrical devices and sends electric current to the grid. The PV effect was initially observed in early 1839 by Edmund Becquerel. However, it was subjected to furtherscientific inquiry in the early 20th century. In 1954, US-based Bell Labs developed the first-ever solar PV device. This device was credited with producing some amount of electric current for use. In 1958, the solar cells were used in numerous small-scale scientific as well as commercial applications (Deutsche GesellschaftfürSonnenenergie 2008).
During the energy crisis period of 1970s, major interest began to develop for the production of solar cells to generate electricity for both domestic and business or commercial uses. However, prohibitive prices, which were approximately 30 times the current price rates, made large scale development of the new source quite impractical especially for commercial purposes. Both industrial development and research in subsequent years made PV technology more feasible along with the cycles involved in raising production levels. The cost of operations also began to decline to the current prices seen today. The costs of PV technology significantly dropped as the industry began scaling up the manufacturing processes and increasingly improving technology coupled with new supply of materials have equally boosted this positive growth (Agrawal &Tiwari2011).
In addition to the drop in cost on the production process, the cost of installation of the devices has also dropped significantly with a growth in the number of highly trained installers. Nevertheless, research indicates that US remains behind other economies in the world with stronger national policies towards shifting energy use from the fossil fuels to solar energy sources. From the global perspectives, the US possesses the fourth largest market for the PV installations behind Japan, Germany and Spain. The rapidly falling price of solar components has been increasing the affordability of the photovoltaic equipments to levels never seen before. For instance, since 2011 the total cost of complete PV system has decreased sharply by about 33 percent on the global market (Messenger &Ventre 2010).
The majority of the modern solar cells are manufactured using crystalline silicon or else thin-film semiconductors elements. The silicon cells are considered more efficient in the process of converting sunlight rays into electricity. However, the high manufacturing costs involved when using the silicon is a factor that inhibits its rampant usage. Furthermore, the thin-film materials are less efficient but may be cheaper and simpler in the manufacturing of photovoltaic cells. Specialized solar cells, commonly called the multi-junction or the tandem cells, are often used in appliances that are very low in mass but are considered highly efficient (Messenger &Ventre 2010). Such materials include satellites and military components. All categories of PV systems are widely manipulated in many applications today.
When all factors are considered, PV energy is considered the ideal energy conversion system because it taps the most abundant energy sources on the earth’s surface, having been made almost exclusively on silicon. Silicon is the second most abundant element following oxygen. This demonstrates the potential abundance of silicon-made PV cells. Furthermore, the fact that solar energy is abundant in supply creates a considerable implication on the total output possible from the resultant energy conversion system (Wiedermann2010).
Photovoltaic energy has been in use for the past 160 years. One of the subsequent contributors to the development of robust voltaic energy system was Albert Einstein. In 1905, Einstein wrote a photovoltaic paper titled On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the production and Transformation of Light. This paper was purely a theory on the photovoltaic energy conversion mechanism. In 1916, Robert Millikan made an experimental proof of the proposed theory by Einstein on the basis and functionality of photoelectric effect. These advances led to Einstein winning the 1922 Nobel Prize, which was mainly given based on his 1905 paper (Russell 2007).
Technical progress in the development of silicon cells had continued rapidly, withtheir efficiency doublingevery 18 months. Commercial success from these advances led to the development of the Bell solar cell. A one-watt cell cost about $300 in 1956 while the commercial plant for power production cost 50 cents per watt in its construction during the same time period. The single demand for solar cells made of silicon rose from the radio and toy manufacturers which were intended to power miniature ships through the wading pools and model DC-4s (Mazer 1996). In this regard, this stage of development of the solar cell served to power toysrather other constructive areas that could be essential for commercial purposes.
1.2. Commencement of Commercial Solar Energy Systems
While working on the semiconductors of silicon components, Bell Laboratories discovered that silicon was highly endowed with photoelectric properties. This discovery led to a quick development of the Si Solar cells with approximately 6 percent efficiency. Early satellites made the very first use of the solar cells. The timeline for these developments was as follows:
Time
1816 On September 27, 1816, Robert Stirling applies for a patent for his economizer at the Chancery in Edinburgh, Scotland. A minister in the Church of Scotland until the age of 86, Stirling builds heat engines in his home workshop in his spare time! Lord Kelvin uses one of the working models in some of his university classes. This engine is later used in the dish/Stirling system, a solar thermal electric technology that concentrates the sun’s thermal energy to produce electric power.
1860s French mathematician August Mouchet proposes an idea for solar-powered steam engines. In the next two decades, he and his Helpant, Abel Pifre, will construct the first solar-powered engines for a variety of uses. The engines are the predecessors of modern parabolic dish collectors.
1904 Wilhelm Hallwachs discovers that a combination of copper and cuprous oxide is photosensitive.
1954 Bell Laboratory exhibited its first silicon-made cell. The New York Timespredicts that the new solar cell would form the basis upon which limitless energy from the sun would be developed.
1955 Western Electric sells commercial licenses in the production of silicon PV technologies. The first successful PV products include the power dollar bill changers as well as devices which can decode computer tapes and punch cards.
1973 The Solarex Corp is established by ex-NASA scientists who were working on development of an efficient PV satellite system.
1974 Japan formulates Project Sunshine which is intended to fuel research and development of the PV system.
1976 The Kyocera Company starts producing crystals solar modules made of silicon ribbon
1977 The US Department of Energy establishesthe Solar Energy Research Institute in the Golden, Colorado.
1980 There is continued development of the PV technological production with gradual improvement in efficiency of production besides mitigating costs of PV cables towards becoming the most popular powerhouse worldwide. Its advantage is mainly based on environmental friendliness and abundance in supply across most global destinations
1983 ARCO Solar dedicates a 6-megawatt photovoltaic substation in central California. The 120-acre, unmanned facility supplies Pacific Gas & Electric Company’s utility grid with enough power for up to 2,500 homes. Solar Design Associates completes a home powered by an integrated, stand-alone, 4-kilowatt photovoltaic system in the Hudson River Valley. Worldwide, photovoltaic production exceeds 21.3 megawatts, and sales top $250 million.
Source: (Messenger &Ventre 2010).
1.3. Recurrent Subsidies by Governments to Boost PV energy Adoption
In order to boost production of PV energy systems, the governments of Japan and Germany governments started creating significant subsidy programs to steer the development of a wide range of PV appliances. Currently, these subsidies are non-existent in such markets but the production has been steady to present. In 2007, California began a similar 10 years subsidy program that aimed at boosting production and supplies across the countrywhile positioning the US as the prime production center for PV energy conversion systems (McFeely 2012).
Although the PV systems were largely successful in powering the Soviet and the American satellites between the 1950s and early 1960s, the majority of NASA scientists were skeptical about the success of the technology with regard to its ability to power its highly ambitious space ventures. From the perspective of the agency, solar cells were merely a stop gap mechanism in anticipation for the discovery of nuclear power systems. However, solar engineers had proved that this perception was wrong. Instead, power supplies acted swiftly to meet the ever-rising power demands through the designing of larger and more powerful solar cell array systems (Messenger &Ventre 2010).
On the other hand, nuclear energy never had the capacity to power more than five satellites compared to the high capacity solar cells. In the 1960s, solar cells started to become in high demand by majority of stakeholders worldwide as the main source of energy for the global satellites. The rising demand for solar cells in the space field also opened up channels for larger business for the manufacturers of solar cells. The past, present and future use of satellites and other systems would have otherwise been impossible had solar cells not been discovered. Furthermore, the revolution that was occurring in the telecommunication sector would have not been realized were it not for the discovery of solar-powered satellites.
1.4. Historical Use of PV Solar Energy
In 1974, solar power was used for street lighting purposes. During the time when Southern Railway installed solar modules towards supplying energy for warning lights next to Rex Georgia, the railways had little confidence that such cells would operate effectively. Subsequently, they had to connect lights to another utility line for the backups. This demonstrated the low level of technology uptake with regard to PV technology. During that winter however, ice developed on the wires and caused their collapse. As a result, the only power supply that was available to Georgia was solar power (Roberts &Guariento 2009).During the same period, new communications systems also emerged. For instance, the microwave repeaters had already led to a situation whereby telephone and power pole had become outdated. In this regard, the majority of the railroad lines wanted to clear the poles in order to save for maintenance purposes.
These turn of events led to increased consideration for the reduction of accidents. In particular, railroads still required few watts to power shunting and signaling other equipment along their lines. Publicity concerning solar powered cells spread across the South, which had successfully installed the power systems powered by solar technology or the PV technology. The South also led the way in majority lines across the United States and throughout the globe to select solar power for running on site track safety machine as opposed to spending large amounts of resources towards bringing long distant centrally generated power supplies (Gevorkian 2010).
Between the 1960s and 1980s, pundits planned to supply power to rural areas of the less developed economies. These regions featured some of the densely populated areas with regard to the Western model of settlements and residential dispersion. Subsequently, this led to the development of centralized generating plants. Through networked wire suppliers, they transmitted electricity to their respective consumers. However, the construction of this network of power supply through the grid system proved very expensive while leaving the majority of the rural residents without power connectivity. As a result, these people were coerced into relying on other costly energy sources for powering their appliances such as automobile batteries, generators as well as kerosene lamps (Messenger &Ventre 2010).
In most instances, solar panels have been providing power to households and business entities located far away from other electrical lines. This way, more people can access high quality lighting power and more reliable supplies. Since 1983, about 50 percent of the households living on the Tahiti Islands have been relying on solar-generated power supplies. Many of the rural citizens worldwide have been using electricity from solar generators from the sun as opposed to those offered by national utility power supply. Around 100,000households living in Mexico, West Indies and Central America has been running their electricity systems such as television sets, lighting systems and radios with solar power. The success of adoption of solar power alternatives has led to the World Energy Council, one of the renowned international organizations of utilities, to identify solar power supplies as an important source of power for supplies in household levels (Messenger &Ventre 2010). Furthermore, the organization also preferred this source as an important development project that could warrant significant attention from the global stakeholders since it provides an ideal source of low-power use for rural applications.
Throughout the 1970s, the governments of developing economies started financing solar energy centered programs. Later in the 1980s, the same governments had also begun to finance large solar energy production through centralized solar-cell production plants. Since engineers can provide a distinct path to any electric need at the point of use, most of them have also realized that such cells can allow every building to become self-sufficient in terms of supply energy to its own requirements. This process has long been achieved through placement of solar panels systems on the roof of buildings to tap solar energy and convert it to electricity power. The execution of these mechanisms has led to the elimination of majority of costs associated with the construction for centralized power plants including purchasing of a land resource for the establishment of a power plant involving centralized power generation center (Wade 2003).
Swiss engineers have also proved solar power generation and supplies to create economic advantages on the micro-approach through the sale of 333 rooftop solar energy generation systems to a number of homes located in Switzerland. The success of the solar power generation systems has attracted more support from governments worldwide. This scenario has created financial incentives that have been seeking to enhance homeowners to install modules on their respective rooftops. In addition, architects and stakeholders in the building and construction industry have also been using solar-cell materials in their building and construction activities (Luque & Hegedus 2011). This scenario indicates the extensive adoption of solar or the PV energy systems to power different appliances worldwide as long as solar resources exist.
Section 2:
2.0. Building Integrated Photovoltaic Systems
Building Integrated Photovoltaic is a dual purpose system. It serves the purpose of an outer structural layer and generates electricity for both on-sites and exports to the grid. The BIPV systems may also provide savings on the materials used in laying the infrastructures for the supply of power particular through other mechanisms. It can also be used in minimizing cost factors on electricity costs besides minimizing pollution that could otherwise result from the construction of power supply systems. Furthermore, the system also appeals to the architectural building framework. The biggest cost advantage of the BIPV is realized if included in the primary building plans and designs. Through the substitution of the PV for the standard materials in the initial construction stage, the constructors may minimize other incremental costs associated with PV systems along with eliminating the costs and designs of instigating new mounting systems (Messenger &Ventre 2010).
The constructions of BIPV systems are often planned in the architectural design stage and further added to the process during the first stage of the constructions. Building-Added PV is often planned and developed in a retrofit stage. Both systems lack racks and other mounting equipments that were initially present in traditional systems. The majority of engineers or designers of such integrated solar systems consider an array of solar techniques as well as their possible uses relative to the specific needs of the occupants of a building. For instance, the presence of a translucent PV can permit natural lights during the day as well as thermal systems to capture large amounts of heat energy to generate substantial amount of water or even create room for a cooling system (Wessner 2011).
2.1. Principles of Applications of BIPV
BIPV has been a product of advanced technology in the global solar energy supply development sector. This is one of the sectors that have resulted from high demand for alternative cheaper sources of energy. Besides, solar energy has also been promoted by the need to rephrase the pattern of using energy sources that have been posing adverse effects to the environment. In particular, BIPV has been applied in the following systems:
• Rooftops – through this type of application, the Photovoltaic materials replace the ordinary roofing materials. Some companies in different regions worldwide have been offering integrated solar energy systems, single piece solar rooftops which are products of laminated glass while other provide solar ‘shingles’ that can be placed on regular settings of roof shingles.
• Glazing – very thin sheets of solar cells have been developed to create a translucent surface that permits daylights to penetrate through via simultaneous electric power generations. These processes are often used in the production of PV skylights or greenhouses.
• Façade – Photovoltaic may also be integrated into building sides to replace old-fashioned windows with made of translucent thin films or other types of crystalline solar panels. Such surfaces have minimal access to direct rays of the sun compared to the rooftop systems. However, the system usually produces greater surface area. In the incidences of applying in retrofit applications, the PV panels may also be useful in camouflaging other ugly or otherwise degraded building components in the exterior phases.
The following diagram shows a BIPV system:
2.2. Consideration of Building Design Considerations
Consideration of the building design is an important aspect in developing an integrated BIPV system. The most important part of maximizing the value attached to a BIPV system is the enhancement of the quality of the planning phase regarding the environment and structural elements for the setting up of the BIPV system. The two aspects leverage economics, aesthetic and other functional aspects of any solar system.
2.2.1. Structural factors
• Building energy requirements: In the designing of BIPV system, it should take into considerations whether a building compartment is able to operate fully and independently of other electric grid. This requires batteries or other systems that provides on-site energy storage systems.
• Constructing solar system design – The designing of the PV system itself is mainly determined by the specific needs of a building with respect to energy as well as any other structural limitations that minimize the choice of materials. The use of crystalline silicon materials also have higher levels of electricity output per given surface area. However, it usage is limited by the costs associated with its materials and design constraints. Thin-film materials also generate electricity per given surface area but are considered cheaper and may be easily integrated into more surfaces. Either cases might be appropriate but it depends mainly on the situation at hand.
2.2.2. Environmental factors
There are a number of environmental factors that should be considered in the choice of building designs. These are external factors that do not occur in control of the individual entrepreneur. The following environmental consideration should be done prior to the execution of a given construction design:
• Climate and general weather conditions – In particular, high ambient temperatures may reduce the expected outputs of the solar energy conversion system. Furthermore, clouds and rainfall patterns may influence the system output as well, in addition to leveraging maintenance requirements. The recurrent high level of air pollutants may demand regular cleanings in order to enhance the system efficiency.
• Insolation – This aspect refers to the average levels of solar radiation that the earth surface receives in a given time. The amount of insolation is computed bykWh/m2/day. This amount of solar energy is the most typical mechanism of describing the amount of solar energy for any given region at any given time
• Latitude – The distance of separation between the earth surface and the sun also influences the optimal tilting angle for the solar panels in order to tap solar radiations. This eventually creates a disparity in the level of conversion of the solar energy by the panel thus affecting the efficiency of the system.
• Shading – Shading is also considered one of the ultimate factors that determines the level of solar radiation that can be tapped for energy on the earth surface. Basically, some of the mechanism under which shading is propagated includes the proximity to tall trees, buildings as well as other possible opaque structures that block sun rays from reaching the solar converters hence reducing the efficiency of the PV system. In order to enhance the performance capacities of the solar conversion systems there, such opaque obstructions should be isolated from the PV system (Luque&Hegedus 2011).
2.2. Advantages of BIPV Systems
Over the years, the benefits attributed to the PV systems have been rising gradually but steadily. However, both the costs and technical issues has remained a major challenge for the designing and subsequent installation of the system. This subject has therefore slowed down the rate of acceptance and subsequent application of the system in many parts worldwide. The US Department of Energy’sMillion Solar Roof initiative has been a major project in the United States, seeking to promote tapping of solar energy in partnership with the aim of raising market entry of the advanced solar technologies. The main goal of the project is to provide an avenue for use of solar energy in order to reduce over-reliance on the fossil fuels through the installation of solar panel on more than 3 million roofs by 2020 (Luque&Hegedus 2011). Some of the advantages of Building Integrated Photovoltaic systems are:
• Provides critical savings for both construction materials and the electricity costs.
• Minimizes the use of fossil fuels and makes it possible to advance mechanism of reducing air pollution which in effect Helps in mitigating potential natural disasters.
• Reduces the costs and losses involved in the transmission as well as the distribution of electricity power.
• The BIPV serves as both power generator and building envelope materials that are therefore important cost-saving mechanism towards enhancing efficiencies in the energy production besides adding architectural interests involved in a building.
• May Help in reducing the peak loads and the overall utility demand
• The BIPV systems also provide an opportunity for public expression for environmental commitments. As mentioned earlier, this process makes it possible for enhanced environmental protection.
• The system also comprises of combined advantages in costs and outputs. In particular, BIPV does not need any site development thus, reducing costs since BIPV is mainly part of the building.
• BIPV is also considered to be carbon dioxide neutral as soon as it is paid back (Luque&Hegedus 2011).
These cost advantages and the general energy generation components are important aspects that determine the level of effective adoption of the systems. The development of the systems therefore creates a significant cost reduction strategy and minimizes the negative environmental impacts on the environment since it reduces use of alternative fuels such as fossil fuels that are credited with high negative impacts on the environment.
2.2.3. Disadvantages of BIPV
While the BIPV system boasts of numerous advantages in the event of high power conversion from the sun, its adoption as an alternative source of energy is not generally undertaken due to several costs and operational factors such as:
• High costs of developing the system are the main disadvantage of the BIPV since it requires modest investments in the energy system. Subsequently, many households may not be able to install it and therefore are less likely to enjoy the benefits associated with it. The high costs of sets offset the numerous benefits attributed to the system.
• It requires high techniques and materials that make it difficult to install widely in the global energy market.
• It is also clear that the short-run cost of generating a power supply through the solar system is higher than other typical ways, though it may result in benefits in the long-run by saving energy costs.
• BIPV system is also susceptible to changes in weather conditions which may influence the working potential of the system and therefore reduce its efficiency. Subsequently, the methods of resolving the problem of instability of the system pose another major challenge that needs immediate resolutions.
• BIPV is also a kind of building and a product of architecture. Subsequently, both lights and shadows are essential for buildings. Since boxes are often affixed to the sides of the solar panel, they often spoil the general aesthetics of the entire building. Subsequently, the architects cannot bear with this disparity and therefore insist on hiding the BIPV junction boxes while superior junction boxes may be needed as an aspect that further complicates the perfect operation of the system in addition to inflating the costs of installation.
3.0. Current State of Technology in the Production of BIVP systems
The use of BIPV system is one of the most enterprising technological ventures with respect to the development of the modest Photovoltaic systems. In comparison with the traditional non-integrated PV systems, BIPV does not only demand extra surfaces for the PV systems, installation rails or the brackets but also provides instant power supply for buildings while supporting the applications such as illuminations and air conditioning. Due to such disadvantages, the BIPV systems may only offer a singular strategy in the successful development of efficient PV systems in future. BIPV has potential in replacing traditional set of envelopes on buildings such as windows, facades as well as the shading system. This technology has eventually lured the interests of many architects (Luque&Hegedus 2011). The BIPV system in the modest simulation has been used to provide shades from the sun, hence reducing heat absorbed by buildings. This process saves energy besides modulating the level of indoor temperatures.
The majority of contemporary solar cells have been using Silicon-based technology often called the Si-based technology and may be categorized into single-crystalline, Poly-crystalline as well as the amorphous-silicon categories. These are the most modest PV cells that have been developed thus far. Single-crystal solar cells are comprised of the highest level of efficiency ranging between 16 and 24 percent and a modular maximum efficiency of 20 percent. Both the Poly-crystal and amorphous-silicon cells records operation efficiencies range between 14 and 18 percent and 4-10 percent respectively. Although the later have low photoelectron conversion efficiency relative to the single-crystalline solar cells, the amorphous-silicon and the non-silicon based cells are advantageous in the sense that they have higher flexibility and transparencies while at the same time are cost-effective making them highly suitable for use in the context of thin film technologies (Messenger &Ventre 2010).
Many researchers have been working to establish and apply BIPV systems. However, few studies have been projected towards evaluating various benefits that are associated with development and use of Integrated PV kits and the effects of the systems on people using related buildings. In order to tap the maximum benefits on the shading effects of BIPV, indoor temperatures, indoor light intensity and the overall photoelectron conversion, researchers have combined sensor-embedded motors with solar cells in order to evaluate allocation capacity and the synergistic benefits of new PV kits that were developed for use together with BIPV system in China. This study was aimed at demonstrating contemporary mechanisms that can be adopted towards enhancing the lifetime of the PV systems (Messenger &Ventre 2010). Based on the system developed above, there has been a conceptualized design of BIPV system in which the PV kits can be simply retrofitted and further maintained on pre-existing buildings.
Another contemporary study focused on the construction of zero-energy office structure located in Singapore in 2012 on the PV module technology and the Assessment of its performance from the resultant grid-connected BIPV system for more than 18 months under the ideal proposition of IEC standard 61724. The results from this study indicated that good performance ratio and the mean array yield that displayed 0.81 and 3.86h/d respectively. From this establishment based in Singapore, the last yield was 11.8 percent relative to nameplate PV module whose efficiency runs at 13.7 percent and the overall efficiency of the inverter standing at 94.8 percent (Messenger &Ventre 2010).This also involved the development of solar irradiation through three distinct factors that can leverage the efficiency of the BIPV system such as angle of inclination, temperatures and solar azimuth among others.
Similarly, in 2012 other researchers also quantified the capacity of BIPV systems for use via the existing single-family alienating residential building in Brazil. During the study, a comparison between the product performances of the conversion of photoelectron efficiency using thins film amorphous-silicon as well as the single-crystalline solar cells. The proposal of a PV kits were also installed on the rooftops of more than 496 residential backyards within mixed residential and commercial locations. This demonstrates the advanced growth of the PV technology through enhanced manipulation of solar power simulation (Labouret&Villoz 2010). Roofs of ordinary single-families worldwide have also been instigated. The detached homes in Brazil were credited with the potential to accommodate the proposed PV kits with approximately 87 percent of the generators thus, yielding a minimum of 95 percent of the highest possible generation output (Luque&Hegedus 2011). The low-pitched roof covers of these residential buildings also represents the best locations for the PV integration on low latitudes besides integrating the installation of BIPV systems on the current roofing surfaces which eventually would transform every house into net-energy-positive residential backyard.
3.1. State-by-State Mechanism of Advancing PV Technology
The development of the BIPV market has been projected to grow in the short-run. The BIPV materials have the capacity to contribute significantly to zero energy buildings whose functions is manifested in the auxiliary power plants while complementing the level of utility grid to Help in supplying virtually all electricity needs of people. These findings were developed by Dyesol Company Limited, located in Australia. The BIPV market for the Dyesol Limited’s subsidiary, BIPV Glass has been anticipating additional growth in market value to about $6.4 billion over the next half decade. It is obvious that energy analysts and other experts in the establishment of solar equipments on buildings have predicted a growth of BIPV technologies both in the short-run and in the long-run (Messenger &Ventre 2010). The diagram shows Dyesol plant.
Another independent research known as Nano Markets report indicated that the contemporary market of PV equipment in North America stood at $2 Billion. New reports also predicted that net-zero building markets is expected to hit the tune of $1.3 trillion by 2035. Besides, looking towards future, it is projected that there will be a possible rise in demand for architects, property owners and designers as well as new term capacity for price competitiveness in the sale and installation of BIPV systems. In the Global BIPV market perspective, there have been limited incentives to the development of the systems.
Increasing demands for production of cost-effective and aesthetically unobtrusive solar equipments has spread globally. Within some of the European countries, there has been incorporation of additional incentives for BIPV production besides the ordinary subsidies offered on stand-alone BIPV systems. For instance, since 2006 France has been providing extra premiums valued at €0.25/kWh on the BIPV to supplement the existing incentives of €0.30/kWh. On the other hand, China has also created additional incentives through its announcement of subsidies on BIPV production since 2009 for equipments offering RMB20/watt (Messenger &Ventre 2010).
The Chinese government has also unveiled an expansive project called the Golden Sun Demonstration Project as an incentive for the development of photovoltaic generation of electric power enterprises as well as the commercialization of the entire PV technology. In the United States, residential BIPV solar incentives have also been created at a varying proportion. In particular, along withproviding tax breaks for materials, there have been incentives which have been giving considerable amount of power compensations in case BIPV home also integrates Feed-in programs (McFeely 2012). This scenario has been critical in defining effective adoption of the PV technology across the region based on the available incentives and other natural factors such as the need to use environmentally friendly energy source.
3.2. Numerical Simulation of BIPV Technology
With advanced BIPV technology, there has been slow but steady mechanism of promoting high level of efficient power generations. The adoption of computer simulations have particularly been indicated as effective approaches to evaluating energy performances of buildings. In particular, the computer simulation Assessment by ‘Autodesk Ecotect Analysis’ simulation software that is carried out in the work analysis of electricity and energy generation performances based on the whole demonstration of BIPV (McFeely 2012). The simulation model is therefore used in compiling and wholesome electrical power generation conditions for BIPV house design.
3.2.1. Improved Cost-efficiency
On February 24, 2009, Arizona based First Solar has achieved a major milestone in reducing the manufacturing cost for solar panels below the $1 per watt price barrier – the target necessary for solar to compete with coal-burning electricity on the grid or grid-parity. Using cadmium telluride (CdTe) technology in its thin-film photovoltaic cells, First Solar claims to have the lowest manufacturing cost per watt in the industry with the ability to make solar cells at 98 cents per watt, one third of the price of comparable standard silicon panels. The new outlay appeared as shown below:
3.3. Recent Advances
Recent findings indicate that about third of new, small and mid-sized solar energy projects across Europe are being established without creating direct subsidies. Furthermore, in South American countries such as Chile, there has been a 70 MW solar farm underway which is expected to sell on the national spot markets thus injecting a direct competition with electric power produced from the fossil fuel-based sources. The cost-reduction mechanism of technology has been mainly driven by several factors:
• Economies of scale – The development of integrated factories are consistently scaling up the processes thus, creating a competitive equipment prices besides amortizing the fixed costs to a larger output.
• Improvement of efficiency – Efficiency of operations of solar PV module systems for the conversion of sunlight into electric power has advanced by approximately 3 percent annum for the past 10 years.
• Optimized production – Higher efficiency production processes and overall improvements in the energy supply chains regarding solar energy systems has continuously provided cost-reduction mechanisms. The combined reduction of PV module prices and the Balance of Systems (BoS) costs have allowed the Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) to decline rapidly.
3.4. Future Opportunities & Challenges in developing BIPV?
In the prospective development of BIPV technology, there have been many challenges that have been influencing the adoption of the technology in most countries worldwide. One of the barriers to the integration of BIPV technology has been in policy development, public awareness and building code. Production prices are variable with respect to markets and applications depending on specific structures and the approach taken in computing Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) measured in dollars/kW/hour thus, posing a significant production and supply challenge (Bonnema, Leach &Pless 2013).
Nevertheless, the value of reducing existing costs of materials, constructing the materials themselves as well as transportation and installation of the system must be known beforehand in order to evaluate the total costs of a permanent BIPV energy production. Indeed, the LCOE is computed through summing up of all the costs incurred during the lifetime generation of the technology and then dividing it by the amounts of kilowatts per hour of the amount of energy produced in the lifetime operations of the project. This aspect goes past the mere costs of generating energy in order to allow undertaking a comparative analysis of different energy generation technologies for irregular permanent and different capacities. This scenario also allows for the realization of competitiveness comparisons for diverse geographies (McFeely 2012).
In the long-run, one of the most foreseeable challenges in mass deployment of BIPV technology in the US is policy issues. The current policy demands each different size panel be subjected to testing in order to ensure agency compliance. Besides, this test is also made to establish a platform for using different sized glasses and metal panels in the building and construction works. In European region, the need to test each recurrent size of the PV panel does not exist today. The ultimate objective of technology developers is the production of BIPV cost competitive products with building materials replaced from older structures such as façade, granites and stainless among others. This may however only happen when the recovery of energy cost over lifetime of the building element exceed lifetime costs associated with the PV component of the building element (McFeely 2012). This may create critical challenges due to lack of such compatibility, an aspect that has occurred often leading to significant cost management challenges.
3.5. Predicted/Opinion on the Role of BIPV System compared to other Energy Sources in Future
Photovoltaic energy source has developed into one of the most lucrative sources of energy in the current energy cycles of the world. Essentially, there has been increased demand for environmentally friendly sources of energy. In recent past, there has been a steady deterioration of climatic conditions due to high carbon emission into the atmosphere that has occurred in large quantities. Despite hefty measures in the development in measures that are meant to restrain air pollution, there has been little to no positive effect on enhanced impact on the reduction of pollution. One of the most problematic means of this pollution is carbon emissions that have been associated with the combustion of fossil fuels. In essence, these aspects of significant side effect of pre-existing energy source have led to increased demand for the adoption of environmental-friendly sources and the solar source in particular.
The role of BIPV in the future cannot be estimated. Solar energy will play a pivotal role in lifestyle of society. It will particularly enhance way of life through fresh air component by mitigating the extent of air pollution courtesy combustions of fossil fuels. The manipulation of BIPV will reduce the extent to which other energy sources have been used and eventually create a positive implication of other complementary products. For instance, the purchases of fossil fuel energy generators are likely to decline in future as a result of increased use of solar panel for solar power conversion (McFeely 2012). This scenario is also likely to face a drastic reduction in cost of energy. However, large scale adoption of the PV technology is still highly unlikely since it has some of its unique challenges pertaining to high initial cost of installation and maintenance.
The use of BIPV systems is considered one of the most lucrative technologies in the development of modern photovoltaic systems. In this regard, the adoption of this technology, coupled with advanced mechanism of promoting self-sufficient network will promote social lifestyle of human lifestyle. In the wake of many governments creating perfect production and operation environment BIPV systems will increase by source of power dominance against other source. In particular, many governments ranging from China, US and Germany have been making high level subsidies that have led created an essential high level production by reducing the cost of production. In effect, reduced production costs have a direct impact of reducing the total costs of complete installation of BIPV systems in the residential areas (McFeely 2012).
BIPV sources also possess great opportunities and play a significant role in the current era through the distribution of power generation particularly in remote areas off the main grid. Although some of the main economic and policy challenges subsist, the whole value of power generation resultant of the process, the complex nature of the power production including the aesthetic designs and flexibility of the power module has began to get deeply entrenched in the society’s domain. This implies that many people have begun to understand the real benefits associated with the use of solar energy and the entire photovoltaic technology in the past (Prasad & Snow 2005). Subsequently, the future adoption of the energy generation process is likely to increase since high level awareness and general campaigns targeting adoption of environmental-friendly energy sources are likely to overcome real challenges facing contemporary BIPV applications.
In the short-term period, high cost of installation of BIPV systems is likely to denature efforts to tune to solar power sources. However, recurrent efforts by all stakeholders that have been observed recently across the globe, there will be a likely decline in both product and installation costs which in turn will increase the rate of adoption of the PV technology on large scale. Besides, this will simultaneously terminate widespread use of fossil fuels and wood thus, leaving the use of fossil and other environmentally unfriendly sources to terminal uses only (McFeely 2012). This implies that the long-run advancement in the use of BIPV may see high adoption of solar energy rise to usages in static setting and leave other sources to mobile usages like automobiles. This will be an acute reduction in use of other sources of energy relative to solar.
4.0. Recommendations
One of the basic recommendation focuses on the policymakers. In particular, the past and contemporary policies have been instrumental in triggering worldwide expansion of both wind and solar energy sources thus, allowing the costs attributable to such sources of energy to decline sharply. Further costs reduction mechanism must however be adopted through the adoption of similar technological improvements and deployment for long-time policy supports. The incidence of reduced costs also raise the scope, competitiveness and the scales of renewable energy sources like solar energy thus, creating a significant improvement and low costs. This does not however imply that markets provide guarantee of delivering sustainable and cost-effective types of energy mix independently. In order to ensure future growth in the sector, policy makers should adopt policies that are largely predictable allowing streamlining and the whole grid-connection processes which promote capacity building to realize essential skills and reduction of financial risks in solar energy and related investments.
Secondly, governments and other entities across the world should adopt mechanisms for funding renewable energy projects and sources that will promote the development and channeling of such energy into the residential grid. In this regard, the costs aspect that reduces the rate of adoption of BIPV systems for both domestic and commercial purposes will be decreased significantly. It is clear that the global trend in investments in renewable sources has been rising due to the positive attitude that people have adopted including policymakers essay writing service in ensuring the modest simulation of low cost energy as well as responsiveness to calls for adoption of environmentally friendly sources of energy. In this regard, the production and supply of renewable energy sources has been essential in developing extensive framework in the fight against climate change. Approaches seeking to cut down impacts of climate in the global perspective are duplicated and rooted in the individual economies.
4.1. Conclusion
The adoption of renewable energy sources has been a global issue that has seen wide range of acceptability due to rise in adverse impacts of fossil or non-renewable sources. Solar energy is one of the most versatile sources of energy that has seen increased demand for measures that would bring down the costs of installation of BIPV systems and subsequent use of electric power resulting from solar energy use. In particular, while the magnitude of overall adoption of BIPV system is still low, the rate at which this mechanism has been developed is rising significantly over the past decades. This is based on internal measures that the governments have been taking towards enhancing the productivity of solar power generation and the overall renewable energy discourse. This study therefore highlighted the historical trend and use of BIPV systems since the initial stages of adoption PV technology which was faced with negative perceptions on its sustainability as well as possibility of expansion to harness larger energy conversion module for use in large scale lighting systems such as street lighting systems. In some of the areas where the system has been adopted, there has been significant under-ration regarding its potential. However, its potential that has been tested and confirmed, which has led to increased adoption as the most optimum alternative energy source and the most abundant renewable source of energy hence the high success of gradual advances in photovoltaic technology.
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