The Application of Satellites in Military Operations
Type of Paper:
The paper should examine a topical area relating to the some area of Satellite
Communications. Purely technical papers are unacceptable and will be downgraded
accordingly. The paper should address technical, economic, regulatory, policy and
operational use of the Internet/Telecommunication topic that you are researching.
A. At a minimum the paper should include one case study / practical example and more of
these are helpful.
B. The paper must state a thesis and, based on the research, undertake to prove or disprove
that thesis.
C. The paper should review the recent literature (e.g., the last five years), distill the
fundamental issues, discuss various solutions to the issues raised, identify trends, and
formulate the student’s own position. An adequate literature search is based primarily on
academic journals (e.g., Federal Communications Law Journal, IEEE Journals),
secondarily on professional journals (e.g., Journal of Systems Management), and lastly on
books and textbooks and online sources.
D. At least eight (6) or more recent references (2010 or later) should be cited. In-text
citations (APA Style) are also required for any referenced material.
Length and Style.
Cover pages,
table –of -contents, abstract/executive summary, charts, graphics, tables,
appendices and references do not count toward length minimum.
The paper must be
prepared in accordance with Appendix A of APA 6th edition. ISBN 9781433805615
2nd edition.
Table of Contents
Scope of project– Military Applications of Satellites…………………………………………3
1. Executive summary …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3
2. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3
3. Business Problem ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3
4. Current State: What is the current solution? And what are the challenges? ……………… 3
5. Analysis of the technologies, solutions available ……………………………………………………….. 4
6. Benefits of the new solution (Financial, Operations, Technical,Political) …………………… 4
7. Recommendation/Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 4
8. References ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 4
Scope of project– Military Applications of Satellites
This paper provides technological and regulatory considerations in the deployment of various satellite systems that have been developed in which the military has been utilizing from the early versions of up to the current ones. This document version will address the business problems of today’s standard and provide an analysis of these technologies and available solutions. The current state of technology of military satellites will be discussed together with how these systems lead to providing full mission capabilities to support military day to day activities. Regulatory, technological operations, political, and financial issues facing military satellites will also be examined. Also, we will review successful military missions achieved through the utilization of these individual satellites. Finally, this document will provide a recommendation based on findings.
1. Executive Summary
For the longest time, governments have been using commercial and military satellite systems for strategic and military purposes. Countries such as the United States, Russia, and China have invested billions of funds towards the development and maintenance of satellites used by the military. This is because of the benefits accrued from outer space. Nonetheless, the process has faced challenges such as regional conflict that cause threats into security. Therefore, the authorities have been mandated to incorporate improved satellite systems that will make the process of utilization better.
The evolution of military satellites has not yet solved the primary challenges to do with security. The systems are still vulnerable to cyber-attacks. In response to dealing with the threats, and related risks, research, and development of the systems are intensively done to ensure they are meeting the current standards while adhering to the set-out laws.
2. Introduction
From the space race that occurred in the early 1960s, the United States among other countries have continually used military satellites as an integral element to their military strategies and national defense (Seedhouse, 2012). The main reasons for these engagements have been communication, navigation, surveillance, and reconnaissance.
An increased bandwidth capability would lead to the tremendous growth of satellites. The growth is attributed to; users understand that the earth’s size needs several satellites placed in orbit of the constellation to focus on the areas of interest and get proper communications coverage, the upgrade of satellites by existing users was not feasible thus needed to invest in new capabilities leading to new launches. Finally, more countries identifying benefits accrued from the capabilities in military satellite communication, therefore, wanted to implement and expand their networks (Seedhouse, 2012). Currently, the deployed communication satellites have phased array antennas that have several capabilities such as can be quickly be scanned electronically in its massive search volume together with better resolution beams. .
Global Positioning Satellites (GPS) is another significant class of military satellites utilized in navigation (Seedhouse, 2012). The United States has its Navstar GPS System; Russia has GLONASS, while the EU and China are soon going to have the Galileo and the Beidou System, respectively. The systems are responsible for providing location and timing data. The main goal in navigation is the provision of around the clock, ultra-precise navigation and timing services that are also accurate. In terms of surveillance, space-based Surveillance (SBSS) is utilized in tracking orbit debris from space. SBSS has been fitted with digital optical sensors that have been mounted on high speed, two-axis gimbals, which allow the controllers to turn cameras around when between targets. Finally, the reconnaissance function is achieved by Operational Responsive Space that is outfitted with a customized version of a sensor known as the SYERS-2. The sensor offers high-resolution imagery in both light and darkness across the wavelength bands. It also improves the military’s situational awareness in real-time.
Currently, military satellites are considered extremely vital to achieving the utmost national security. This is the reason there is an increased inquisitiveness from many other countries apart from the dominant military country, the United States. In the past, the satellite game involved a clash of superpowers. However, the current situation entails smaller nations and private entities, exploring this field to meet their distinct individual interests.
3. Business Problem
a. Countries currently offering military satellites support capability – Deployment
The deployment of military satellite support capability differs in countries in terms of the resources invested in the activities. The large space actors include the United States, China, Europe (collectively), Russia, Japan, France, Germany, Italy, and India (Space, 2017). These countries have allocated over $1 billion in resources to offer military satellite support capability. For instance, the United States has deployed approximately over $48billion to be used across its agencies and offices; China deploys $11 billion in resources to its military and civil space agencies while the European Space Agency allocated approximately $7 billion. It is only Russia that has reduced its budget considerably to reach roughly $4 billion. While some countries such as Japan, India, and Italy have small-scaled programs with lower budgets, their space powers do have technical capabilities that surpass even those in the top positions. The skills can be noted in areas such as Global Navigation Satellite Services, Imagery Intelligence Gathering, and Space Situational Awareness (Space, 2017). All the nations with budgets higher than $1 billion have human space-flight programs, indigenous launch capability, and substantial national security space systems. It is these differences in abilities that categorize nations to be large space actors or belong to the next tier.
b. Issues incurred in military satellites technology – issues involved (Cost / Security)
The development of military satellite technology is an increasingly expensive venture that would cost above $1 billion. Activities such as having one communication satellite system on an orbit could take up to $55million to $90 million for each launch (Magnuson, 2014). This amount of money cannot be equated to the costs incurred in purchasing and integrating the terminals needed for linking them back to earth. These are just illustrations of how costly it could get in trying to get the right resources and technical know-how for the space programs. The Space Force has undeniably caught attention on the funding table for its activities, but new programs continue to face resource challenges. The Department of Defense has several new space programs that were initiated at a time where they also had other plans in other ventures. Additionally, some major DOD space programs have too faced considerable increases in costs leading to extensive schedule delays. For instance, the Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) Satellite Program has had its program’s expenses grow by 117% from the time it was launched in 2015. The Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS) program increased by 265% from the initial cost estimates and had earlier been delayed for approximately nine years. Apart from the financial resources, there is no clarity on whether the entities governing the systems have an adequate workforce for all the programs, existing and new. Challenges such as employee disengagement, high turnover rates, and failure to build a database of better information concerning its employees have caused the Space Force to lose competent employees and find it challenging to bring in others (Chaplain, 2019).
The other issue has to do with the security challenge where there has been an increased rate of security threats towards the systems. Under the Defense Support Program, the primary mission is the provision of tactical warnings on ballistic missile attacks. The satellites were capable during the Gulf War after they provided the warnings of Iraqi launching Scud missiles. Nonetheless, space systems are facing security threats that have increased tremendously over the past two decades that are both intentional and unintentional. The risks include interferences with radiofrequency, laser attacks, kinetic intercept vehicles, and ground system attacks. Furthermore, an environment that is already hostile is posing different hazards, such as an increased number of active and inactive satellites, rocket bodies, and other fragments together with debris (Chaplin, 2019). A report by the Defense Agency Intelligence Report in February 2019 would find that China and Russia are in the process of coming up with various means of exploiting the United States dependence on space-based systems to challenge the latter’s position. The report also pointed out that Iran and North Korea have shown counter-space abilities that could be a threat to militaries using satellites (Chaplain, 2019). To this effect, it highlights the need for the implementation of strategic policies that will build systems that are survivable or resilient in the face of security issues.
c. Regulatory mechanisms
All space activities are governed by regulatory and legal regimes that began with the Outer Space Treaty in 1967. The treaty has been considered the basis of international space law. Among its provisions, it includes the banning of weapons that could cause mass destruction in both space and the national territorial claims to celestial bodies. Additionally, it provides guidelines on the underlying liabilities for damages arising from space activities. There are also international bodies affiliated with the United Nations (UN) (Space, 2017). The primary one is the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), which is responsible for the coordination of radiofrequency use and orbital locations in communication satellites. The Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee is responsible for formulating the guidelines that will minimize orbital debris during space activities. While the two organizations have no binding legal authority, the ITU has a significant role to play in the satellite industry (Space, 2017).
Regulatory and legal regimes also exist at national levels to address space functions such as research and development, space operations, imagery, and navigation-related capabilities. Other issues addressed include economic development, military, and intelligence operations, and space exploration. The constructs of these regulatory mechanisms at the national level vary widely (Space, 2017).
d. Space Situational Awareness
If countries in top positions are to maintain their superiority, a clear picture of the environment within space assets is essential to detect any potential threats. These efforts are referred to as Space Situational Awareness (SSA) (Baird, 2013). The United States has relied heavily on SSA in dealing with space-flight safety, which is the mission involving the creation and maintenance of the catalog of orbiting satellites. Other items that are in the catalogs include spent rocket bodies and debris that could potentially cause collisions in space. These efforts are crucial in mitigating the risk associated with launching satellites and protecting the orbit space assets. While space-flight safety is very vital in military operations using satellites, the SSA concept of operations plays only that single role of collision avoidance (Baird, 2013). This has been considered as not being enough to handle the increasingly hostile environment. The current situation includes anti-satellite (ASAT) weapons, sensor dazzlers, and communication jammers require a better or improved concept to protect the country’s space assets.
4. Current State: Current challenges and Solutions?
a. How is the collaboration between nations utilizing/sharing the same satellites?
The increasing number of satellites in space coming in different sizes and types have raised the issue of having each nation participate in a space safety coordination system actively. The United States put in place a satellite information-sharing program in 2009. This program requires any country to provide basic, emergency, and advanced position data and services at no cost to other players. The system has been developed to bring on notification procedures for any close approaches and ways to exchange information through an official website. Many of the countries that have entered into space operations participate in the program. However, some countries such as Russia and China do not engage nor follow the set-out guidelines, which creates breeding grounds for collisions and increases the likelihood of space debris.
In the move towards improving one’s capability of one’s military use of satellites, the formation of intergovernmental agreements has allowed countries to provide each other with dedicated or backup communications capability as an option to purchasing stand-alone capacity or infrastructure (Stanniland & Curtin, 2013). For instance, the European Nations-other than those with higher financial capabilities to fund military use of satellites-use the international agreements with their allies to gain access to protected communications. Some years back, Germany did this for France before the latter launched the Satcom BW program. Currently, nations such as Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, among others, have leased one or more services from Inmarsat, which includes a military portfolio for maritime or airborne communications. Other agreements include the NATO Consultation, Command and Control Agency (NC3A), and Athena-Fidus or Italy and France alone (Stanniland & Curtin, 2013).
b. Financial burdens
The process of preparing, funding, building, inaugurating, and operating a satellite system is now routine business. It is considered an investment for the long-run ahich is normal in standard business models. To this effect, the financial burden entails a high-upfront capital expenditure, a reasonable amount of manufacture and start-up period, and vulnerability to high investment risk factors (Hertzfeld, 2013). Other expenses that will be incurred related to; the research and development activities, updates in terms of meeting regulatory measures and protecting oneself from security threats, and economics of developing and launching new systems constantly (Hertzfeld, 2013).
c. Neutralizing of military satellites
Countries such as the United States, Russia, and China have developed new weapons that could hold satellite constellations of other powers at risk (Mizokami, 2020). Anti-satellite weapons are essential for crippling the ability of military adversaries to operate on the battlefield and also threaten the civilian uses of space. This leads to more severe attacks to be pinpointed to one perpetrator and could cause an adverse impact on the military and economic aspect of spacefaring powers. The Center for Strategic and International Studies and the Secure World Foundation Reports indicated the existence of dangerous weapons that could neutralize both the military space satellites and civilians (Mizokami, 2020). The significant disruptions will be felt in all kinds of signals from the television ones to the Global Positioning System.
Nonetheless, Article 52(2) of the Additional Protocol 1 has directed that any attacks to occur should be strictly for military objectives (Stephens & Steer, 2015). The military targets are limited to the objects with which by nature, location, purpose, or use formulate a useful contribution to military activities. Furthermore, the destruction on the objects, whether partially or totally through capture or neutralization, should offer a definite advantage to the military,
d. Competing in space
The increased dependencies on space-based infrastructure have extended even to smaller countries and the global economy at large (Haas, 2015). Nonetheless, this has also led to the re-emergence of geopolitical rivalries, which dim the prospects of future stability in outer space. Continued access to the space environment could lead to military confrontations that could use kinetic anti-satellite by any of the states that have such capabilities. Furthermore, the return of strategic rivalry is imminent. For instance, the unrivaled military and economic predominance of the United States in the aftermath of the Cold War is beginning to wane, potentially bringing in a geopolitical competition with China (Haas, 2015). The competition with China will occur at the Asia-Pacific, while with Russia, it would happen at Eurasia since the latter is also developing its multipolar global system. According to the United States perspective, the tensions between the East and South China seas are considered as confrontations by proxy over the incoming regional order. Additionally, the acute crisis in the NATO-Russia Relations over Ukraine is also a reason for the growing fault lines between the superpowers. This interstate in warfare is starting to find itself in outer space (Haas, 2015). This kind of competition considers the strategic conditions in which the incoming militarized interactions in area are done to illustrate having higher potential. Constant attempts to offset the United States’ advantage in space will occur to diminish the latter’s military in all its superiority margins. China and Russia want to compete in several developmental programs and tests that have not been seen since the 1980s (Haas, 2015). Space warfare is gaining dominance in the doctrinal debates of some superior armed forces. This is also attracting other nations as they want to explore the options of military counter-space.
5. Analysis of the technologies and Available Solutions
. Next-generation satellites
An investigation of the United States Military is currently underway on the use of high altitude, Long Loiter airships similar to earlier reconnaissance platforms. The technology will offer an ability to survey an area regularly without having to refuel, can go extreme altitudes of up to 18 to 60 kilometers above the earth, and is not expensive compared to the launching of satellites (Lee & Steele, 2014). The constant monitoring will also evade the challenges from camouflage techniques and hiding forces among fixtures in urban areas. Additionally, since GPS navigation systems are vulnerable but still crucial in national security strategies, risk mitigation strategies are vital. A method known as the GPS Jammer Locator System (JLOC) has been created to point out any jamming and interference sources in the GPS, providing corresponding data that will aid in defeating those sources (Lee & Steele, 2014).
b. Overview of future Standardizations and Regulations of outer space
The development of external space law, specifically on militarization, has become very urgent. This is because of the advancements that have been made in outer space, and the current space law has not incorporated them. Therefore, in the development of the regulations, several regulations, and standards to be included:
● The creation and implementation of global standardization in terms of space terminologies and expressions in a legal manner (Halunko, 2019).
● Laws on fair competition to encourage the involvement of private capital in space programs as more of the outer space will be explored extensively.
● Incorporations of foundations that follow the rules set out in private space law so that different companies across the region can interact based on acceptable norms.
● The International Space law resolves the challenges of space debris, such as outlining the types and legal responsibilities for the entities involved in leaving garbage within space.
● Development and adoption of a new international agreement by the UN Security Council on how to use resources in outer space for both scientific and industrial purposes (Halunko, 2019).
6. Benefits of the new solution (Financial, Operations, Technical, Political influence)
a. Resiliency
Implementation of advanced satellites to be used by the military allows new applications and become preconditions of the incoming new disruptive technologies. These developments bring in extensive benefits with higher risks. In this case, the satellites to be used will be resilient to withstand any upcoming threats. It also allows intensive networking that is an integral element in driving space technology. The cooperation with the right authorities, industry players, and even academic researchers create a ground that incorporates advanced technology seamlessly as resources are readily available. The technical operations will be maximized on various aspects that the military will make considerable advancements in the line of their activities.
b. Economic Catalyst
The new developments provide a primary benefit is a better cost-value ratio. The incoming satellites are cheaper but have short life spans. However, the limited period can be compensated with shorter replacement periods that ensure the satellites meeting the state-of-the-art standards are actually on the orbit always. The small satellite clusters will be replacing the substantial number of large satellites.
Complex products also have a high risk attached in initial investments, which opens up questions of insurance and liability obligations. The starting phase of these kinds of investments will require the new space companies to have an exceptional degree of patronage with the government and anchor customers. Having major stakeholders as part of the new systems will ensure that one gains constant support even with further developments.
Conclusion
The use of satellites in military operations has become an integral part of national security operations. The field has undergone constant improvements that have seen several countries join space exploration. Nonetheless, the process has its challenges, and it takes having the resources to bring in new developments that will deal with current and future threats.
8. References
Baird, M. A. (2013). Maintaining space situational awareness and taking it to the next level. AIR AND SPACE POWER JOURNAL MAXWELL AFB AL.
Chaplain, C. T. (2019, March). Space Acquisitions: DOD Faces Significant Challenges as it Seeks to Accelerate Space Programs and Address Threats, Statement of Cristina T. Chaplain, Director, Contracting, and National Security Acquisitions, Testimony Before the Subcommittee on Strategic Forces, Committee on Armed Services, US Senate. In the United States. Government Accountability Office (No. GAO-19-458T). The United States. Government Accountability Office.
Haas, M. (2015). Vulnerable frontier: militarized competition in outer space. Strategic Trends 2015 (pp. 63-80). ETH Zurich, Center for Security Studies.
Halunko, V. (2019). Space Law: the Present and the Future. Advanced Space Law. 3. 10.29202/asl/2019/3/3.
Hertzfeld H.R. (2013) Economics and Financing of Communications Satellites. In: Pelton J.N., Madry S., Camacho-Lara S. (eds) Handbook of Satellite Applications. Springer, New York, NY
Lee, R. J., & Steele, S. L. (2014). Military use of satellite communications, remote sensing, and global positioning systems in the war on terror. J. Air L. & Com., 79, 69.
Magnuson, S. (2014, February 1). Military wrestles with the high cost of satellite terminals. Retrieved from https://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/articles/2014/2/1/2014february-military-wrestles-with-the-high-cost-of-satellite-terminals
Mizokami, K. (2020, April 1). Anti-satellite weapons are becoming a genuine threat. Retrieved from https://www.popularmechanics.com/military/weapons/a32008306/anti-satellite-weapons/
SeedHouse, E. (2012). Military satellites – Current status and prospects | SpaceRef – Your space reference. Retrieved from https://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=1622
Space, B. (2017)Technology, “Global Space Industry Dynamics: Research Paper for Australian Government, Department of Industry, Innovation and Science.”
Stanniland A., & Curtin D. (2013) An Examination of the Governmental Use of Military and Commercial Satellite Communications. In: Pelton J.N., Madry S., Camacho-Lara S. (eds) Handbook of Satellite Applications. Springer, New York, NY
Stephens, D., & Steer, C. (2015). Conflicts in space: international humanitarian law and its application to space warfare. Annals of air and space law, 40, 1-32.
