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A REFLECTION FROM WITHIN (15% of Final Grade) Class 4
Students will work independently to complete “A Reflection from Within” to critically engage with the course
readings from Week 2 that explore privilege and web of oppression.
Students will engage in reflexive practice and complete the following expectation:
a) Wholeheartedly and thoroughly identify privileges and/or web of oppressions experienced in one’s
personal life-space. Students are free to choose any constructs most relevant to them, however a total of
3 must be explored (min. of 750 words)
b) An exploration into how these privileges and/or web of oppressions will shape their professional life space as a CYC Practitioner working with young people and their families (min. 600 words)
Headings should be utilized to organize the paper integrating APA referencing guidelines. Specific
references from a minimum of 3 additional external academic sources (not grey literature) must be
appropriately integrated to augment understanding of the constructs. This submission must be uploaded as a
PDF document.
“A Reflection from Within” Rubric – Total of 30 Marks
Poor Needs
Improvement
Satisfactory Good Excellent
Introduction
(2.5)
No description of
what will be
conducted in the
introduction
Limited
description of the
introduction about
what will be done
Mullaly, Robert P.. (2010). Chapter 10: Unpacking Our Knapsack of Invisible . In (Eds.), Challenging oppression and
confronting privilege : a critical social work approach (pp. 287-320). Oxford University Press.
This work is protected by copyright and the making of this copy by Toronto Metropolitan University was authorized
by Oxford University Press.
This copy may be used solely by students registered in CYC406 011 - Therapeutic Life-Space - F2022 at Toronto
Metropolitan University, and may not be distributed to any person outside the aforementioned class, whether by
copying or by transmission, and whether electronically or in paper form.
C h apter 10
Unpacking Our Knapsacks of
Invisible Privilege
Privilege ;s lIot somethillg 1 take awl which r therefore havt the op/ro'l of 'lOt tllkillg.
It is something tllll! society gives me, mzd ullleH I dumgr the institutiollS which giw it
10 me, they will con/llliu to gh'e it, mid, will (OlltiIll4( to haw it, howtl'e r lIobie (lid
egalit(ln'an my i 'lfe,llio7lS.
- Harry Brod, A1f11 ~ Uves
Introduction
The flip side of the coin of oppression is privilege. However, compared to oppression
in general and anti-oppressive SOci,l] work in particular, not much has been written
on prhilege in the social work literature. This is most unfortunate, bec.l.l1se the main
reason we have oppression is because we have privilege. It is similar to the relationship
between pOH'rty and w(",lth wc haw poverty bee,'lI:;c w(' have wealth. If we want
to truly understand poverty, we must understand wealth. If we want to do something
serious about poverty, we must do something serious about we.llth. And if ",-e want to
truly understand oppression, we mu.t underst,md priv leg~'. Oppr('"ssion and privilege
go hand in hand. Just as prhikg('" opens doors of opportunity, oppression slams them
shut (Johnson 2006). Just as poverty wi!! always be with us until we do something
about wealth, we will always have oppression until we do something ahout privilege.
As articuiat('"d by Harry Brod in the quote above, privilege is not something we take;
it is given to us by society if we possess the characteristics that society values, such as
b('"ing male, white, heterosexual, afilL!ent, and non-disabled .
Ferber (2003) offers two major reasons why we have t('"nded to ignore the issue of
prh-ilege. First, it implicates those with power, and second, it is far ('"asi('"r to explor('" the
problems faced by oppressed groups than it is to explore our own roles in p('"rpetuating
in('"quality. This is unfortunate, because we are all implicated in syst(,"llls of oppression.
'Although as individu.lls we may not believe that we are oppressive people, we still
particip,llC in relations of oppression and gain various privileges from that relationship'
(Ferber 2003, 320). No matt('"r how much I write or how many classes I Ie'ach about
inequality, oppression, racism, .lnd sexism, I continue to reap the privikge's of being
288 (IIALLE."JG1XG OpPllEssJO .....
a whitt.' malc. And although I do not feel ashamed of or guilty about my racc or my
gender (after all, I have no control over them), I struggle with the knowledge that I am
given certain privileges by society becausc I was born with particular characteristics
that society valucs. I do not have privilege because of who I am as a person or because
of what I haw done. Rather, I have privilege because of the social categories th;;!t, for
the most part, I was born into. As stated by Alison Bailey (2004, 307), 'privilege is
granted and birth is the easiest way of being granted privilege.'
If we focus only on oppression, thc structured invisibility of privilege is reinforced.
I agree with Alison B,tiley (2004, 302) when she says that 'any undcrstanding of
oppression is incomplete without recognition of the role privilege plays in maintaining
systems of domination: This chapter will explore the concept and thc structural nature
of privilege, some of its major characteristics (including its invisibility to privilegcd
persons), the dynamics of privilege or how systems of prh'ilege work, reasons why
privileged persons become dcfensivc and uncomfortable in talking about it, and why
dominant groups do not see privilege as a problem. We .... ill also discuss the myth of
meritocracy, and some of the specihc pnvilcges that are attached to various poSitions
of domination will be outlincd. Finall)', wc will explore what all this has to do with
us as individuals and as social workers, along with what we can do about prhilege to
make a difference.
The Nature of Privilege
In Chapter 2, it ""'as mentioned that all of us suffer from some kind of frustration, hurt,
and restriction at some point in our lives, but this docs not mean that we are oppressed.
What determines oppression is when a person is blocked [rom opportunities to self·
development or is excluded from full participation in society or is assigned :l second·
class citizenship not because of a lack of individual talent or merit but because of
his or her membership in a particular group or category of peoplc. Similarly, what
determines privilege is not any particular advantagcs a person might han' but whNher
these a1.ivantages were e.uned or conferred system,ltically by society on the basis of
his or her membership in a particular soci,ll group (Hcldke and O'Connor 2004;
Mcintosh 2003). Just as ,Ill oppression counts as harm but not all harms count as
oppression, all privilege is advantageous, but not all advantages count as privilege
(e.g., having a driver's licence, holding politic,11 office, becoming a !l.ltur,wzed citizen,
which are all filmed advantJges). What determines oppr~'ss on and privilege is the
s}"stematically confe rred naturc of harms in tIll' fomler and (unfarlled) advantagcs
in the latter (Ibiley 2004). In her classic article on oppression, Marilyn Frye (1983)
argues that if we want to delcrmine whether ,I p,lrticuJar harm or restriction qualifies
as oppreSSion, we have to look at that harm in context to see whether or not it plays a
role in maint,lining a structure that is oppressive. Similarly, Bailey (2004) argues that if
we want to decrtl1l!1t! whether or not a particular advant,lge qualifies as a privilege, we
need to look ,It the advantage in context to see whether or not it plays a role in keeping
complex systems of privilege in place. Sisneros el al. (2008) point out that pri'ileged
U" 'PA.CJ(ING OUR /G'IA.PSA.C;J(~ Of' ISnSlllLE PRn'1U:G£ 289
people may experience hardship but unless these hardships are grounded in structural
barriers that affect people in vital and limiting ways, they cannot be considered as
forms of oppression.
Thus, there are 1"0 kinds of advantages- earned and une.uned- and those that
are unearned are considered to be privileges. The corollary is that advantages that are
earned (e.g., a quality educatioll, skills, a good reputation) are not considered privileges
(although one could argue that some ad
7. Sick m!d tired, When it comes to the problem of oppression and privilege, privileged
persons often do not want to hear about it because it upsets the luxury of obliviousness
that comes wit h their privilege. A conunon response is saying or making fada! gestures
that imply, 'Here we go again: If I had a nickd for e'ery time I have seen a student or a
member of an audience that I was addressing (almost always privileged) roll his or her
eyes when I start talking about sodal inequality or oppression, I could probably wipe
out the entire federal deficit. Privileged p"ople often become annoyed or irritated
with the person who raises issues of oppression and privilege, not because they do
not believe that these issues arc real but because they feel that they are being put UpOll
or bashed or made to feel guilty. They may feel that a great w"igh! has been placed
on their shoulders or that open season on privileged persons has iust been declared.
However, it is one thing to hear about problems associated with social inequality and
oppression, but it is quite ,lIother to live with them every day. Yes, life is hard these
days for almost everyone, and almost everyolle may fed exhausted (as I have often
heard from persons of privilege in a defensive manner), but white persons who feel
exhausted arc not exhausted because they arc white. Heterosexual persons are not
having a tough time because they are heterosexual. Subordinate group members have
to do all the things that make privileged group members tired (from raising familie s to
earning a living to growing older, and so on), but on top of that, they have to struggle
with the accumulated stress that oppression piles on them simply because, through no
fault of their own, they are in the wrong social categories.
In sum, a number of avoidance mechanisms arc available to privilegl'd groups that
allow them to avoid feeling any guilt, shame, or responsibility for the deleterious
effects of oppression. These mechanisms allow them to live in a world of denial and
iUusion where the}' are not involved in the life of society. This option 'puts members
of privileged groups inside a tight little circle that cuts them offfrom what it means to
be alive' (Johnson 2006, 124). It means that privileged groups have to distance and
insulate themselves from much of humanity-men from women, white persons from
people of colour, heterosexual persons from gay, lesbian, biseX1.lal, and transgendered
persons- because if they were to get too close to thes(' people, they would find it more
difficult to maintain the denial and illusion and would have to deal with the troubles
that surround privilege and oppression. Given th.is Situation, it would seem more
desirable for dominant groups to accept responsibility for privilege and oppression
and view it as a challenge and an opportunity rather than as;lll affliction or a source of
guilt and shame.
A Taxonomy of Everyday Examples of Unearned
Privilege
In her groundbreaking and celebrated work, Peggy Mcintosh ( 1990) referred to what
she caBs the 'invisible knapsack: The invisible knapsack contains all the benefits or
300 C1uLLf'NGING OPPRESSION
privileges that come to us every day simply because we are white, or middle-class, or
straight, or male, or non·diS.1bled or are a member of an)' other privileged group in
society. [n the boxes below, I outline selected privileges that are associated with being
middle- or upper-class, a member of the white racc, male, heterosexual, non·disabled,
a member of a two· parent family, and of adult age that precedes old age. I limited the
number of privileges in each ciltegory to around 15 to 20, although some of the lists
compiled by others are quite lengthy. Mcintosh's original list of'white privileges: for
example, contains 46 items. These lists do not reflect the privileges of every person who
falls into a particular category. They arc both under· and over·inclusive. Other social
categories will have an impact on each set of privileges. For ex.unple, a black male .... ill
not have the same number of privileges or the same qualitative extent of prhileges
that .1 white male will have. A white male is automatically seen as an authority figure
whereas a black man is not. Carbado (2004) tells us that we have to be careful not to
universalize any category of privileged persons or present them as a 'cohesive identity'
in ways that deny or obscure the fact of multiplicity or heterogeneity wirhin categories
of privileged persons. At the same time, people who fall into categories of prili lcge
must do more than identify the privileges that ha'c been cOltlerred upon them. They
must also TCalize how they acti'c!y re·enact these privileges interpersonally, culturall}',
and institutionally. In other 'Iorcis, privileged persons must come to recognize their
own complicity in the normalization of privilege.
Middle· or Upper· Class Privilege
I can avoid members of other classes or races and only be "'ith people
like me if I choose.
I do not worry about going hungry or being homeless.
I can be charitable or not as I please.
I can live where I choose ilnd move when and where I choose.
• I can enjoy frivolous spending without worrying about end-of-the month payments.
• I ColO join clubs and organizJtions that man}' cannot.
• I enjoy respect and trust in most situations from most people.
• I am assumed innocent by the criminal justice s},stem at INS! until
proven guilty.
• I do not have to worry about getting adequate or competent legal help.
I do not have to shop around for the best buy or ""ail for sales.
• [ can be sure that my children will not be mistreated by teachers and
staff at school.
I do not worry about paying for music lessons or sports memberships
for my children.
UNPACJ:/I'G OUR /(.VAPSACILream of.ll1cntion
to a diubility .tatu, lnd (~n simply take my non ,,~ hilit y IUtUI
for granted.
I Coln succeed without people being surprised becaul': they have low
UP"(t~tioru of my ability to ront.,bute to sodety.
I (an pretty well be ~5sured that heroes, role modds, ~nd respected
people will sh..lI"e my non·disahled SUtus.
I can be aSliured tJut wh"n 1 "Iprc.s my Ideas, they "'ill not be dismissed
or ignored but ",HI bt: taken mor" seriously than ifl werc diublcd.
• [~have .ccess 10 polling sutions on election da}' and n,te in pri"J.cy
withoutthc help of others.
Whcn I go out in public, l ean bt: pretty sure that I will no! be sldred
at or looked ~t as odd or not belonging and that m05t bUildings will be
accenibl" to me.
o 1 can be aSlured that I .... :ilI uswlly be taken lieriously and not treated
like a child.
I anume that ",ilcn ! need to tnwl, 1 will h~ve ~cce5~ to b,,~~, lT~ins,
o1rpl...nes, and other me~nS of transportation.
• 1 am $i>Ured th.t where"" I go, most p;:ol'le will not feel Jwkward or
lmcomfortable ~ro"nd me.
I am i§§ured that 1 (an particip.at<, active 1)-' in mainstream society and
will not be segregated .nto I.J.vLllg si u~tions iu,'h as nurslllg homes or
into lip"dal schools and sports programs.
Th~nks to A1bn G.)oh",on (2006) for the ~bo'e examples of non-dilabiluy
privileges.
J08 CIf~LL[NGING OPPRLSMOS
Young Adult and Middle-Age Privilege
t do not halle to endure people )'elling at me bec.luse they assume
I cannot hear,
I '.lI1. be assured that people will not infantilize me by talking 'baby
talk' to me,
I am assured that other people .... "ill not try to mm dedsions for me,
otten ..... ithout wnsult,Uion,
J am not likely to be viewed ~5 a burden on sodety md draining the
country resour,es,
I do not haw to eJ(perien,c people assuming thai I am stupid or cannot
do anything for myself,
I do not h,1'e to endure receiving endless advertisement,,; in the rn.ail
for funeral arrolllgemcnts, estate planning, pension and insurance
schemes, nursing-home care, and specials on IIIcontinence supplies.
I am not likely to feel useless, lonely, and suicidal because of my age or
have people pity me because they assume I am lonely md useless.
I can be assured that pt-'Ople will not equate my ~ge with illness md
infinnity,
I am assured that people will not consider me as inc~ able of having a
se.x life or that if I do, it must be be,al.l'c I am a 'dirty old mm:
I don't h,we to endure being called 'dear' or 'love' by people I don't
even know,
I do not haw a steady stream of people coming to my door lying to
me about whal my house needs and trying to rip me off with various
questionable products and schemes,
I can pretty well be assured th~t charaneu my age in the rno,ies or on
television will not be made fun ofb<:cause of their age,
I am not likely to be referred to in derogatory Icons such as an 'old
fuddy-duddy ' or 'dirty old mm' or 'you old fart' or told that [ am 'O1.'r
the hill.'
I do not hJve to endure colleJgues discounting my sc.hol.l.fship without
even reading it because they assume it must be out·of-date or just
contains old ideas,
Social Work and Privilege
13e causc everyone in society is Jifected by oppression and privilege Jnd bccJuse
.::",:'ryon.:: grows up within dnd polrticipJtes in systems of privilege and oppreSSion, then
privilege is an issue for social worke rs personally and profess ion~lly and for social work
organizations. Social workers ge!l('rally arc members of privileged groups. This is not to
say that many social workers have not experienced oppression or are not members of
oppressed groups, On-rall, however, they enjoy many of the privileges outlim'd l"arlicr
in this chapter by ''lrtue of their TJCC, job, t'ducation, middle class, professiolul SLltuS,
economIC status, age, non·disability, ,1nd so on. In addition, a sCTvice user quickly
leams that the social workn often has control over the resources th,lI the service user
needs and has decision.making power owr cerum aspt'cts oftht, 'CTvice user's life thlt
tht, service user does not have over the social worker's (~brsiglia and Kulis 20(9).
Unfortunately, just as privilege is not handled w ry well by privileged people generally,
so too Me social worke rs and social work org.lnizations often oblivious to or in denial
of prwilege issm's in the course of th cir social work practice.
Dominelli (2002) points out that privileged pCOpll' (indudmg SOCIal workers)
have Um.'e strategies .wail.lbk to them to deal with theIr position of domin.1nce o"er
others (induding service us.t.·rs): a demar~ationis t option. an mcorporationist option,
and an egalit.lrian option. Thes(' three positions can co-exist and overlap e
the incorporationists, which they achieve throllgh the selective inclusion of people
drawn from the ranks of the ·other.' This group of selected people Jre those whom the
dominant group thinks they can trust to be true to the 'alues And traditions of the
dominant group, and they arc given honorary status m the domilJ.lnt group. Howel'er,
this honorary status call be withdrawn at ,my time If the hehJI'lOUr of the person
who i. dcsign,led as inferior displeases the dominant group. Those m the dominant
group who reject the current social system becausl' uley consider it unfair and unjls
follow the cgalitarian option. They st'ek tr.)llsfOrm,ltion of .1 sOCiety chMJcteriud
by inequality and oppression to one that is egalitarian and inclUSIVe of differencc
on equal te rms. Anti·oppressi,-c SOCIal workers, e'en though thC)' Illay be members
of pril'ileged groups. "",,old obviou>ly opt for the eg.llitari,l! ,tratefty. The parallels
between the demarcationist and neo-conservatil'e social work positions, between
the incorporntionist and liberal· humanist SOCI al work pOSitions, and between the
egalitarian and critical social work positions should be obvious at this point.
Marsigli,) and Kuli~ (2009) speak to d few problems with r('sp<:-( to the I~
before coming to the agl'ncy), Service users ,lee usually a,,'are of priVlkg<'s enjoyed by
the social workl'r even if thl' social worker is not.
If left unadd,..,s~d , thIS I"""~;ved pm·,lege c~n bt:come an obstacl~ to effecti, ~
communication ~nd rapport bUlldint;.. . s clients [wl may usum~ th~t the
profession.ls c.nnot unJersund whal th,·y are goIng through due to their lack of
experience with ,·('ruln oppr~ssi,"e SltultlOns. Soci.l worhrs, includIng ho~ from
minOrity groups, may bt: in denial .bout the pm·ileges they enJoy that theIr c1'ents
[sir} do not. s.:lf·awlrcnCSS about pn"iJcgc ",,,,,.seS soci.1 workers' effectiveness
and, I!I th~ ~nJ, nhan( s thelT professional and p"rson.J growth. IgnOring privilege
or minimizl!Ig its imp"! on the dient·workn relatIOnshIp may compromise "'ppm!
and trust, Ind,ng 10 Ine ffective practl'" [MafSlglia .nd Kulis 1009, 17J.
In a study of how a group of (sdf.ddined) len ·of·centre soci~l ,,·orker!; dealt with
issues of class, Tace, and g<'nder in their everyday work, Donna Hames (lOO2) reported
on a number of observations made by the study participants on some negative ways
that somc SOCIal workers and social ,,'ork supervisors handled issues of priruege. First,
one participant noted that many people feared that if the)' began to talk about giving
up their privilege, they would become subordinated, which had the effect of shutting
down all discussion on confronting priVilege. Another partiCipant obsHyed that there
is a tendency not to ackllowledgc one's own power; rather, everyone wants to be part of
an oppressed group. This sentiment, which i> called the 'tlight to innoc~nce ' by Sharene
Razack ( 1998, cited in Baine. 2002), is a way for people to a,·oid the rcsponslbillty
for changing rela tionships of tlominance·subordin,lion by 'hIding behind some facet
of th~ir identity tha t locates them dose to, or within, subord'nated groups' ( 1998,
cited in Baines 2002, 192 ). This is a revc.lling obseTl'Jtlon that supports what Johnson
asserts about privilege in that it shows th,lI llcople are mort' willing to confront the,r
subordinate stJ.tus than th~y arc their priVileged positIons. Bames speculates that
because mJny social work models emphasize seems the world through the e)'e.
of service users and fai] to recognize (or at least addrrss) the power .md privileges
that social workers posSl'ss on thr basis of theIr education, class, employment, Tace,
,lntl so on, the n<'ed to identif}' one.elf as ,1 member of ,Ill oppressed group is the
logiu.l extension of such models. I think it is ,uso J way of denpng that part of one's
identity is associated with the harm others ex)('rie11l:c because of oppreSSIon and it
gets people off the hook in terms of taking any responsibihty for doing something
about it. I agree WIth B,uncs (2002, 192) when she says that 'little is achieved by
I'nvilegcd people sh,lring powcrlessness while much can be achu,'wd by redistnbutmg
power and building p-ohticilcd, 'lffirming idenlltirs. Lr.lrning ho'" to use power and
privilege, rJthn than den}'ing it (.!;ic :, is part of the challcnge of the anti-racist [and
anti-oppressIve] project:
"'P~ K1-"G Q UA K~'AI')"AC"5 OF LIlt SIMU PRJ,'IUGE 311
In addition to how II affects people, the trouble that surrounds pnvllege also aifeCIS
organizations such as workplaces (including social work "gencies) and uni'ersilies
(including SOCi,ll work programs). lhe prevalence of prwilegc and oppression in
orgJ.nizations is one of our best kept secrets for those with privilege and one of our
worst kept secrets for .members of subordmate groups .. Iost of the time, people act
as though there were no issues of privilege and opprCS~lOn, and the organi1,.lIion
either denies thai anything is wrong or is oblinous to it- undl d crisis occurs and
the typical reaction is panicked efforts ,11 damage control to minimiz<- bad publicity
or legal eXpOSUfl' (Johnson 20(6). lfleft unattended. privilege makes organi7"tions
increasingly dysfunctionJ.l Jnd vulnerable. In d society such as ours that is character ized by relationships of privilege lnd oppression, the Jssumption cannot be th.lt
because no one has complained, therefore there is no problem with oppression
in an organi1.ation. Th(' workplace and the uniwrsity art: part of the larger socIC!Y.
People in the ,',orkplacc or in the university have grown up and been mciaiized in
the larger societ),. To some degree, the urgJni1.ation hJ.s to renect the larger 50Cl('ty.
which includes the existence of oppression ,md privilege, Prhilcg'· ,md oppression
must become a p~rt of the organiution's agend;l, and it must be dIscussed. The
silence must be broken. Otherwise, white men, for in,lance, will sec little reason to
examine themselves in relation to the racism and sexism thaI haunt the lin'S of so
many people or to see how living in a r,lcist J.nd sexi,! society h,1$ influenced them
with respect to how they see the world or how they rega rd women, people of colour,
persons with disablllli('s, and so on (Johnson 2006). It is not enollgh for the boss
or the instructor to treat women as they would men or people of colour as they
would white people, because seXIsm and r."ism go beyond one person's intentIons
or behJ.iours. If prh'i!ege and subordination Me no! discussed in the or!tanintion, it
becomes very difficult or nsky for a member of J subordinate group to TalSe issues of
priVilege. If subordinate group members become uncomfortable "orking or studying
in an orpni1Jtion because critical i.sues arc not addressed, the organiz"tion will
become known as a place where they are not fully welcome. Person." who aTe not
white, heterosexual, male, non-disabled, and so on will realize that they can do better
elsewhere, 'someplace where you can look at those WIth power ,lIld lIIHuence ;Illd .e('
people who look ilke you' (johnson, 64 6j). Owtimc, thesl:' other pbces WIll do
better because of their diverse population of students or workers Jnd becau~e they aTt~
able to ~ttract and keep talent from ~ larger p'ool ofindlviduJls.
What Can We Do?'
There arc no edSY answers to the que,tion of what we can do about the problem of
privilege .tnd oppression. Ihere is no recipe book or how-to manu;l or 12-step pro·
gram. Nor is there .tny way around or over the problem. We must ccnfront it heaJ-on
and go through it if we are to nuke n difference, The follo"ing afl' some of the t.lsks
that can be carried out in confronting pnv,]egc .tn"! unsettling ~ystem 5 of privilege.
3 I 2 C H "U.£NGI.'I" OPPIlI'SSIOS
I, Rrdailll lire words, One of Ihe inherent characteristics of professionalism is that
c,lch profession develops a professional discourse or vocabulary, For J long time,
social work had a clmical or therapeutic discourse, mainly becollse It aligned it5elf with
the medIColl model and adoptc,i counselling or therapy as ways of dcalmg With mClal
problems and people experiencing sodal problems. Much of our discourse today, it
seems to me, is J n5equcnc.: of trying to avoid politically charg.:d terms or words
so that we do not olfend Ihe public, our employers. mainstream social ".. orkers. and
so on. In an earlier chapter, i made the argument that the term 'SOClal mequality" is
one of those bourgeoiS, t.:chnic.:lI, polite, and professional te rms that tend 10 reduce
the political charg.: or the imperative of domg mmething about the violent outcomes
of oppression, We should identify SOCi,ll inequality for whdt it is-mcially sanctioned
socl,llterrorism and structural violence. Then maybe we willtakc it more seTiously and
try to do more about elimmating it.
Similarly, soci.u work has de'eloped J di$Course ,lbolll difference that has hnle
political charge ;u1d does not make people feel uncomfortable when they hear
the ""Ords in the discourse-words hkc dl1:TSlty, lalerance, cultural Sensillvlty,
dpprecidting difference. Contrast these words with the followlllg: TJci~m, sexism,
patri.l!chy, domination, privilege, oppre ~ion, subordinatIOn, anti·Semltism, cbssism.
The latter group of ""Ord~ ~C1 ally names problems, and these " 'ords tend to be the
vocabulary of people hurt by the problems. People from priv!lcgcd groups Me often
uncomfortable with ~uch words because they do not want to look at ",holt thcy point
to. White mcn, for example, tend not to want to lool at seXIsm or racism. Heterosexual
persons do not want to look at h~teroseXlsm. Pnvileged persons would rather hear
... ·ords such as diversity, appreciating difference, tolerance, and cultural sens,ti'·lty.
because they are good things to talk about and the language is polite (Johnson 2006).
The political func tion of using te rms such as these. howl'"'cr, LS that the), cover over the
troubles associated with racism and other forms of oppreHlon and privilege. And if
we cannot talk dbout a trouble. then we cannot do llIuch aboutlt. '\'oros lib sexIsm
and pri'ilege point to something difficult and painful III our history th.lt contillues III
everydar life in our SOl:;"ty. Th.:lt me.lllS th.1I the re is no way to tall about it ... ·uhout
difficulty .:Iml pain' (Johmon 2006, 10). On.· thmg we can do thcn a.s anti·oppn,·ss,vc
soci:'lJ .. orkers IS to rccl.lim the words of oPPl"('mon .md prh,Jegl' ,In,1 r.'~Og!II'U th.!!
a word like 'racist' docs not mean 'bad white people' or 'sexi,t ' does not meln 'b,ld
men' or 'feminism' docs not mean belllg a lesbian or llIan·h,ller. \'1' can usc v>')rds
!lle oppression Jnd domination .lIld sexism withoLJt being 0ppl'5sive or dominant or
SCXISt. If we .If(" going to be p.lrt of the solution with respect to diminol!ing oppression
Jnd all the h,mn It causes, then w.: Illilst drop our defcnsll'e senslhvlt}· to that difficult
discourse and the reahty to which it points.
2. Adatow/t dgt tlllll Ol'prfHIO"
how it atf ... cts the c,·cr),dJ.Y lives of bordinlte groups. Aw.ueness by itself is not
cnough, however. W ... must main tain this awareness in th ... face of J. system characteri/.cd
by paths of least r .. sistance that !cad away from critical awar ... ness of how systems of
privil ... ge and oppression work. It is f.mt.uy to think that wc can rnd privilege without
changing thc syst ... m th.!.t allows a small minority of privikgrd peopl ... to hd'(' J
monopoly on political power arid to own most of the wodd's wealth and resources,
leaving the rest of the poPUI.ltion to fight over whdt is left. It is also fanla~)" to think tha t
we can end privilege by changing the W.l}" indh1du.lls think. The crucial task is to apply
our understanding of how system. of oppression and privilege work and to change
the systems themselves- soci.ll, economic, cultural. political. religious, familial, and
so on. Maintaining a critical awareness of privilege t.lkes commitllll.'nt .lnd work .. 1Ild
10 hang Ollto this awareness we must make it part of our cyeryd.lY lives.
3. Pay art~'ltioll. Dc,"eloping an understanding of Nhat priVilege dnd oppression
are and how th ... ), opnJte .lIld how we participate in th('lll is the first st('p in workmg
for change. Thc Simplest W.l)" to de,"c1op an underst.mding is to make reading about
prh'ikge part of our ,,·('s. It is ea>)' to have.m opinion, but it take, work to know what
)"ou arc talking about. Some peopk assume that !J.:CdUS(' prinlege and opprl'sslon arc
part of e,"('ryday life or because they have experienced oppres~lon, then they know
,111 thcy ha'"c to know. How(,V!.':T, on(' penon cannot l)Os,ibly eXperlCllCe all that is
involved in opprcssion and privilege. As weU, our experiences are so lkeply .Ih.lp ... d
by privilege Jnd oppression thlt often, what we think we know misses the mark. "111.1
is wh)" activists t.llk to one another and r('ad each others work . bccause s('eing things
ck.uly is trick)" business. "niece is a vast literature on issues of privilege available HI any
d ... c ... nt library system, although as Johnson (2006) obser"C~, you would nc"er know
it, judging from its invisibility in the mass media and mainstreJ.lll bookstores. The
m.1SS medi.l would rather discuss wh.,ther or not men and wOlll('n an' from (litf"n.'nt
planets or h.we dill .... rcnt brains than examine the reality of m.lle privilege. Reading
IS just the b('ginnHlg, how ... wr. because at some point we have to look at oursd"rs
and society .lnd see whether we can identify what we arc rl'ading about. For example.
once we haw included the concept of 'paths of least Tl'sistance' into our everyda)"
conKiousness. we begin to ~ ...... t hem everywhere. If privile):('d groups arc to take thclr
share of responsibility for dealing with issues of privilege, thcn we must listen, obsuvc,
ask, read, and listen again- we must make it our busmCS5 to tind out for oursl'iws.
Using My Privilege to Advance the Cause
For the past Ii" ... y('ars, I have been the dean of the Faculty of Social Work at
the Un,,"ersity of Manitoba. It is one of the largest social work programs in
Canada, with three campuses, three degree levels, a large distance-education
Using My Privilt!gt! to Advance the Cause (continued)
program, dose to 1,000 students, and ~ budget of approrim~tely 56 million.
As de~n, I w~s a member of the senior ~dministration in the university, and 1
had a wry busy job. Ont: day I w~s giving ~ guest lecture, and a student asked
me the foHowing question, 'You have written a lot on structunl and mti·
oppressive social work, but don't you think it is all talk! I mean, you have 01
big job here and i1re part of management-some would say part oflhe enemy.
How can you write ilIl this stuff and not practise it in your big fancy job!'
Fortunately, it "'""as ~ question thilt I had frequently asked myself, so I
was able to respond to it based on an ongoing critical reflection I have
ilI ... ",.ys carried out with respect to my job and my prhileges. I told the
dl&s that I viewed my job as doing anti·oppressive social wod-jun in a
differmt position from that of iI mainstream social work)Db. As dean, I was
responsible for many aspects of the faculty, which induded hiring (faculty
and staff), faculty development, supporting equity measures, curriculum,
and poliCies and procedures-not total responsibility for all of them, but
I had si~ltificant input and influence, not onI}· because of my position but
also because of my scholarship. [ was able, for example, to write the faculty
position descriptions specifying that one of the criteria for applicanu was
knowledge of m ti·oppressh·e social work or some aspect ofit. I WilS able to
hire st.lff members from subordinate groups if there "'"ere such applications,
and I was able to seek out such applicants. I do not think it is right (for all
kinds of reasons) for a student from a subordinate group (approxim;ue!y
half our students were Aboriginal) to come into our general office and see
a 'sea of white faces'- what has been called in the literature on privilege a
'white-out.' [ was able to compose the mission statement for the faculty in
a way that rdlected social justice and anti.oppressive goah and principles. I
was able to hire faculty persons from subordinate groups and support them
during their initial adjustment period with the facult)'. [was able to push the
curriculum agenda towards more I n!i.opprusive content, .J.Ithough this "as
always a sensitive matter because not all social work faculty members are in
favour of and-oppressiv!.' concepts. I was able to support the lXjuit}' programs
at our social work campuli in northern Manitoba where Aborigin.u persons
made up 80 per cent of the student body. In the inner-city program. we
gave preference to applicanu who wert' refugees or immigrantJi, Aboriginal
people, disabled persons, persons of colour, and resource-poor persons (all
persOll& admitted had to meet a minim.ll academic st:mdard). Now, much
of the equity measures were in place when I ilITived in Mmitoba, but I was
Using My Privilege to Advance the Cause (contirllud)
a.ble to support and help to develop them. On the national level, I recall a
meeting of the Canadian Associa.tion of Deans a.nd Directors of Schools of
Social Vork during which" small committee from the Canadian Association
of Schools of Social Work presented a proposal to us that would require all
schools or faculties of social work to ha,'e an equity plan for its programs,
This would entail establishing goals with respect to ensuring that the school's
personnel, curriculum coment, policies (e.g., tenure and promotion) and
procedures, and so on wOl.lld reflect the concerns and issues of groups who
Iuve historically (,lced insurmountable objects with respect to ge tting into
university and who arc in subordinate and inferior social positions in today's
society. A number of the heads of social work programs seemed quite hostile
to the notion of equity as well as to the group .... ·ho was presenting. 1 was
able to intervene, using my position as dean of a large social work program,
as someone who had an extensive publication re cord and was respected by
most of the other social work academics present, and as someone who had
be.::n around for a long time and could articulate the need for such a policy,
The hostility to the committee Jnd its proposal n:garding an equity plan as
a standard of accreditation .::vapornted. In other words, I was able to use my
privilege to advance the cause of anti-oppression,
The above is not intended to draw positive attention to me but to show that
you do not have to be in a frontline social work position to successfu!lr carry
out anti·opprcssh'C practice. The need for such prJctice is all around us, both
in our work lives and in our personal lives.
4. Lwnl to /j$ft». Johnson (2006, (41 ) !hl)'S it best in thc following Mssagc:
tt ent ,'~ listening is e~ c'i .. lly difficult fo' membus of domin nt groups. If S.()lownc
confront. you With you, own bch~"i our h~1 sup?Orts priVilege, >kp off the p~,h of
least remt .. nc. Ih~t encour~g'"' s you to defend and d~ny. Don', tell Ih~m they're 100
sen.!ill'·e or need J better s<: $~ of humor, and doo't Ir)' to upbm ~"'.)' wh~t )'ou ,hd
. 5 something else th~n whJt they',,· telling you it wa~. Don't la;' )·ou dldn't "'0'0 II
or ,hat you were only kiJdm!S. Don't tell them what a champ",n of Justice you d'e
or ho'" hurt )'ou feel beCJ us,", of 'h~t they·r. tdhng )·ou. Don', make Jokes or try
to be cute o r ~fmln , sinc,", onl)' aC(e$$ to pri'ilege can lead someone to bell.,'.
thesc ,1fe acceptable responsel to somethmg a5 seriol1' a. prl'ilcgc dnd oppreSSIOn.
Listen 10 Whll IS bemg Solid. T3ke it seriousl)". Assume for the lime bemgthat It 'S tru.,
because l~en the pow.r of path> of lust e~ Jnc., it proix,hl)' I •. And then take
responsibility to do somethm g aboul it.
316 C/( lL[.';GING OPPUSSIO/<.·
S. Little rISks: Du somethmg. The more we pay anemion to pnvilege and oppressIOn,
the more we .... ill see opportulUtiC5 to do something about them. OpportunitH.·s eXIst
everywhere, beginning with oursclws. We can become cognizant of the paths of
least resistance that we follow and our relationship to them that makes it so easy to
follow them. For myself, it C;in mean trying to stop hogging air time and interrupting
others (especially women) and learning new y~ of hs!ening more and lalking less.
Or it can mean that I stop avoiding looking at or communicating with persons who
have noticeable dis,lbilitics and learning to gCl over my feclings of discomfort and
awkwardness. Then:: is no limit to the number of paths of least resistance that I can
step off. It is not just a matter of changing pe ~onal beha~our, however, because the
choices I make are connected to the systems in which! par!iClp;i!e. By op,nly changmg
how I participate in a syst<'m, I not only change my beh;iviour but I also contnbute
to changing how that .ys!em operati's. Changing the world Ifl'olves the dynamIC
relationship ben'"een personal and social change. OtherwJYs that we can help to make
a difference include the follOWing:
Make noise and be >f'ffl. Every system of prhilcge and oppression depends on
silence. Rather than collude in it, we should show up, st.lnd up, speak out, Sign
petitions, write leners, volunteer.
Fi"d little ways of gettiug "if the patll$ of Icast n:sistll"a. It can be as simple as not
laughing at a racist or sexist or he terosexist joke or stepping it up a notch and
saying that you do not find such Jokes funny. It can be wnting to the editor
of )'our local newspaper to protest any in~unces of sexism or racism or any
other form of oppression that appe~ rt' d in the paper. In Ihis wa)', )'01,1 interfere
with the normal flow of b usiness and subvert the asswnplion that everybody
is going along with the Status quu by not [;omg along WIth it.
lJa" to make pwplt ffd Imcomfortablt, starting k'itli ),
possibilities ue .l.l.most endless. bee,lUse pri'ilege is cI·crywhcre. We could,
for example, ad"ocdte for equJ.hty in the workpl.!ce. not sUI'P{lrt busllIesses
that engage in unfa.ir labour practices or th.lt ,]fl' inaccessible to people with
disabilities (and tell the businesses why we do not support them). support fair
trade businesses, join international org.lni1 ations such .IS the ,mtl'globJ.lizatlOn
movement or the pt:~ce movement or the ennronment.ll mon'ment or
Amnesty international, 5uPlhlrt 'end Icgi~lated powrty' organizations. Openly
support and compliment people when they uke ,111 ,Iitrrnative p.lth to that of
the least r('sistance.
The above activities for confronting .Ind ch.lllenging prh'ilcge were develop"d by
AlbnJohnson (2006) for an.yone in society who might he concerned "'Ith is,ues of
privilege and oppression, ObViously, they have relevance for social workers who follow
a social justice mandate. In the prevIous chapter, I outlined" number of principII'S
of anti·oppressive social work pr,lc tice th.1! Jrt' equ,lly relevant to confronting .md
resisting priVilege-everything from haVing d goal of sod,ll tramfornl.ltion to the
construCll'e use of anger.
A number of wTiters ad"oc.ne tholt members of priVileged groups become 'allies'
of subordinate groups and work collectively to overcome relationships of priVilege
,lnd oppression (c.g., SIsneros et at. 2008; Bishop 2002). In her book B~w"'IIIE II"
,'/ly: BfI'Ilki"E tll~ Cycle of OPI'rl'ssw,[, Anne I3ishop presents .1 portrait of alhcs as
persons who are socially .Iware, .lfe connected with III/ olher people, ha,"e a cntical
an.,lysis of social structUfl::S, Il-O'isess J. collective ori,'ntalion .1, opposed to on~ that
is individu:llistic, have an cc~ptan("e of struggle and .l sense of proces<, h.l,·e an
understandmg of 'power With" .IS oppo,ed to 'power owr; and haw a hIgh dq;rce of
self. underst,nding, a knowledge ofh,sory, and an undcrstandmg th.lt good lIItentJOns
do not malter if there is no action against oppression. She m.lke. Ihe p01l11h.l1 the
s:une characteristics are typical ofpeoplc who ,Ire well advanced in their ,"wn Iibcr.ltion
process. Bishop (2002, 110) sa}'s of allies:
allies unJerSlanJ th~t. JS p ... t of,· dnoul opp ..... ssor groups whn~ . mJl~ .. lble·bo<.ilcJ.
heterosuual, mlddl" or ~bo"e in the dHS stnl(lure), th"y d,J nOl Ind idu~ll y brmg
Ihe lt u~ lon [e f eppresslol1 j ~bout ~l1d Ihey CJnl10t JUS! fl"ach out with goodw,]] ~nd
sol'e II. They unde'$!~nd tI ~I thcy mUM (t With olh",s [not for oth",", or on h<.:half
of otheo ' 10 contrihute to ch ngc . ·lhe)· bdi,·,·c Ih~I to do nothing IS to fl"lIlforct
the ,Iulu< quo: .. . 'Ihey t».oc rrsponsibilu)· fM hdp'"g to $ok" probiems or' h'5tor" ~l
injustIC'" WIhout l~kJng on III, I i,Ju~l guilt. Mo.1 look for wh~t thty .. ~n do. wuh
othns. in ~ Strol,'SIC WJy, and try 10 ,,('('cP! their limluliom l",yon.t Ih~!.
318 C IlALLItNG!NG OPP H5SION
AJlies would ~arry out most if not all of the activities outlined above .... ;th respect 10
confronting and trying to change systems of pm'ilege. Bishop presents an extell5;w liM
of questions .llld gludelines that ,someone considering becoming an ally to oppressed
groups should a~k himself or herself. The most important guideline for being an aily, in
my view, is that the role of the ally is to help or assist oppressed groups in any way one
can in their struggle for liberation. Under no circumstances should one assume that
one knows better or should be the leader just because one IS a member of a privileged
group- thiS is probably the worst thing one could do. Becoming .ilues and/ or doing
something else to combat social injustice and inequality in our society is critical.
Although not powerless to affect their own liVlOg conditions, oppressed groups
cannot, by themselves, do away with entrenched systems of pmi!ege. Wtwt is needed
is for pri',leged persons to make the problem of privilege thm problem and to do
something aoom It (johnson 2006). Becoming an ally is one way of doing this.
The fina.l action 10 be mentioned here that we can take to undo our priilege IS for
each of us to take what Peggy Mcintosh c.ills our 'inVIsible knapsack' and remow all
ofit.~ contents. 'rhls im'i5ihle knaps."lck contains all the benefits that come to us ~imply
because we arc white, or male, or straight, or mIddle-class, or non·disabled. 'VI' have
to open that knapsack, dWllp out the contents. and uke a look at all the different IH)'S
that these a~cribed characteristics (those we are born with) ha'C become so obsmred
and invisible thnt we have cOllie to believe that the privileg,es .... 'C ha'e 10 our b'Cs an'
the result of some kind of ,l(ruevement on our parts. In mhl'! words, we have to dispel
the myth of meritocracy. We must use our une,lrned ad'antagcs to weaken tudden
systems of pr;,'ilcge and our arbitrarily ""'ardcd power to reconstruct power systems
on a broader base.
Conclusion
This cbpter focused on privilege, which is the Illp side of oppression. The relalOI15hip
between the m'o is direct and unambiguous. We hJ.ve oppr .. ssion beCJuse we h,IW
priVIlege. Privilege benefits one group at the expense of many groups. In d'SCUSSing
the nature of priVIlege, we sal' th,lt it IS surrounded by a paradox in that tho~e who
h,we privilege tend 1I0t to know it or kllOw how privI!ege hJ.ppens from one 1Il0ment
to the next. [t is im'iSlble to mOSI privileged rersons but not to 0ppn'ssed groups. For
the most part, pnvdeged persons behe"" th,11 the unearned advant·J.ges attached 10
their speciJ.1 group membership ,Ir~ the out.:ome of theIr hJ.rd work, viglbnce, and
cultural supenonty.lhis bel,,::(is reinforced by ,I !lumber of myths, such .ls the myth of
mentocracy. Together, oppressIon ,10( prii!..·ge protect the pm',leged group's ace,'5S
to a wider unge of b .. tt;,·r-l'aying and higher,st.ltus pOSlllons as well .IS preferenuJ.I
access to J.nd trC.ltment frolll our soci,Ilmstitutlons. Like opPn'ssion,l'rivik'S .. IS multi,
dllllension,ll and CJn only b .. understood if viewed as ,JI intersectIonal phenornenon.
When we looked .It the J)'n,lmlcs of privdege, we S,IW that it is not considered J.
problem by the dominant ~roup because of the 'luxury of ohli'lousness'-th.lI
V."MCJ.:l .... C O~'l! "-"APSAC"_' Of 1",7S/!IH PKl ',LEGS 319
because they own or control most of society's resources, its ~ociall!stitu ions, and
political power, they do not h.ln' to think about how thdr privilege negatively affects
subordinate groups. Dominant group member~ tend to compare them.elves to other
domin,lIlt group members an d not to members of oppressed groups. We looked at
the way systems of privilege operate, and we saw how the beha"iours of following 'the
path of least resistance; remaining silent, and 'othering' subordinate groups Me used
to prop up these s)'Stems. We examined J. number of mech.lllisms that JlIow persons
with priVilege to avoid .lny rc~ponsibiJi y for oppression J/ld its deleterious effects. I
presented specific examples of privileges associated with a L1umb.:r of social groups
and argued that privilege has not been handled very well by sodal work to d.lte. Finally,
[ suggested a number of activities that confront and challeng~ rrivileg~ . In do,ing, !
offer an excerpt from one of my f.lyourite writers on the subject of pri~lege, Allan
Johnson (2006,107).
Havmg pri·n"ge d""m't me,n that someone is ~ bad person. But It does mun that
ther~ isn't a slngl,' member of J. dommant gmup who d""sn' hav~ ~S ll~ S of rl l~f
to dul with both int~ma y ~nd externally, in ,..,btion to the world ~round th~m. It
waS handed to them when they ""ere (hild,..,o with no Sen,e of ",h.t "'J S ",i!;C and
good to take !lito thcm&elves and ",h.t wH not, And, &0 they _cccpted tI, uncritic.llly,
unknowingly, eve~ innocently, but acc~pl it they did. It "'.lsn't their fault. 1hey
ha,-e no rearon 10 kd guilty about It, bec~u!e they Jjdn't do .nything. lIut now tI
is there for them to J~.l with, just .s u's there for wom~n. p..ople of color, people
WIth d,s.obilit,u,lcsbians, and gay men who arw dido't do anything to dc!;C""e th~
oppresslOn that SO profoundly shapes their Ike!,
in solidarily,
bob mu/lilly
Critical Questions for Discussion
I. How dO<'s privilege also hurt pr vileg~·d persons or group ~?
2. I remember obsening a situation recently in which .I m.ln h .. ld a door open
for a ,","Oman, who re,Kted by S.1ylllg, '[ C.ln open the door mysdf, th~nk you.'
The man said in a surprised tone,'1 W.1S only being polite.' Wh.l! do you make
of this door-op~ning ceremony? Is there more going on than the man might
realize? What cultural messages .1re being conveyed about men and women?
Do you think the same rna" might be ,IS polit~' at home, sh.uing equally in the
housework ,md childcare?
J. Identify any critical incidents in your life that led to rour increased awareness of
privileg" enjoyed by members of your group.
320 C HA LUSC'SC OnlUsslOs
4, Discuss how the 'inVlsibility of pnVllege' might ru. made evident to other soci.J.l
worker~ or fellow students who ,w: from privileged backgrounds without
making them fcd guilty or defens,ve.
S. How would rou open people up to the idea of male or gender or heterosexual
privilege wilhoullurning them off?
6. DO"'5 your agency or school have J divers'lr training program? [f not, why not?
If so, does it mclude white privilege? If not, how o.n you h,·lp it to prov,de ~ safe
forum for the c.~ploration of the realities nd ,hallenges of while pnvdegel
Further Readings
Anderson, ShMon A., and Valerie A. f..·llddlcton, .,ds. (2005). Explora/IOMS m Pm',ltge,
Opprr.5si(m, mId OIL'crSlly, Belmont, CA: TIlomson, Brooks/ Cole. This book is a
collection of personal stories by soci.u wol"lers, pS)'chologlsts, and counsellors
who have aU confronled oppression, pre judice, and pTlvllege. One of the bIggest
challenges 10 being an effective practitioner IS reCOgnizing, strugglmg Wlth,
and using one's privilege in Ih ... s ... rvic ... of opprt'ssed groups. TIm collecllon of
narra tI ves is designed to hdp readers unde rst.l!ld that prl~1cge h.u m,lny fJces .l nd
ma.nr slatuses and that individuals art' <;ub) ... CIIO il eithe r a.s agents of oppressIon.
targds of oppr,·ssion, or both.
BIshop, Anne (Z002). Ilecotlllllg lin Ally: Ikflll.:mg tht Cycle of OpprC55iou, 2nd edlllon.
Crows Nest, NSW, Australia; Alkll and n"~n . ltus book seeks OUI th .. root, of
sc,:ism, racism, olnd all other forms of oppression thdt dlVldc us, It suggests ways
10 change, particularly through INcoming Jlli ... s of oppressed peoples wh ... n w ... Jre
in the role of oppressor. It looks for ~olutlon; by e.>:,lminm!o' th ... process through
which we came 10 recognize ours~kes, fir~t as JX'oplc who h.IVc exp.:ncnc ... d
oppressIon, then a. m ... mb ... rs of prll'ikg,·d sroups.
Heldke, LiS.l, alld Peg O·Connor, eds. (2004 ). OJ!I"'tSSl(m, Pm'lIrg~, ,md Rt;;l>/ul1u;
TIl(orrtlwll'fnpcrtil'fS (lll Ran,m, 5(."1>111, .md /-/d(r()j(XI,m, N,·w York; r-.kGrJw,
Hlil. TIllS anthology I. grounJ~d 111 J dislllKt tll('oTctICal framework th,lt pn)iJes
cohn ... nce and coheSIo n to Ihe r':,ldings dUI tlw boo!.. compn>cs by presentmg
the phenom,·na of r.IClsm, sexism, hl.'lerosexism, and c!.lssism .1S mt ... rlockins
systems of oppreHion. Rc,;ting on this model of oppreSSIon aTC two conneClmg
sets of theorIes; one wncan ... d with I'Til'ilegc- thc il,p ~Ide of opprt'ssion- alld
the otha with ruist,IIK ... - lh ... respoIlS'· to oppressIOn.
Johmon, AIl.m G. (2006). Pnnlrgt, POh,,.r, .md D,jfrrma, 2nd ,·ditlon. N ... w York;
McGraw·Hill. I haw found this book 10 be the most inform.lIl"C and ,lCccssib1c
of all book, ! have rc,ld tkalUljo: with pm'lkg.:. It prond ... s a framework that is
conceptu.ll .llld theoreuc.ll on th ... on ... hand .lnd ground~d III the cxpl'rienc ... of
e'erydJ)' hfe on the other. f.. tlll)' examples .lTe proVIded to enabk I:Jd,'rs to s ... e ference list
You Want Quality and That’s What We Deliver
We’ve put together our writing team with care, choosing talented writers who shine in their fields. Each one goes through a tough selection process, where we look for folks with deep expertise in specific subjects and a solid history of academic writing. They bring their own mix of know-how and flair to the table, making sure our content hits the mark—packed with info, easy to read, and perfect for college students like you.
We don’t do AI-written essays or copycat work—everything’s original. Competitive pricing is a big deal for us; we keep costs fair while delivering top-notch quality. Our writers are some of the best out there, and we charge rates that stack up well against other services. This means you get stellar content without draining your wallet. Our pricing is straightforward and honest, built to give you real value for your money. That’s why students turn to us for high-quality writing services that won’t break the bank.
Academic integrity is at the heart of what we do. Every paper starts from scratch, with original research and writing tailored just for you. We write 100% authentic—no plagiarism research essays. Our strict quality control process includes scanning every draft with top tools like SafeAssign and Turnitin, so you get a similarity score and proof of originality. We’re obsessive about proper citation and referencing too, crediting every source to keep things legit. It’s all about giving you peace of mind with content that meets the highest standards.
When you decide to place an order with Dissertation Writer, here is what happens: