Behavior of Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete Structural Members
Introduction
The research presents different studies that have been carried out on the investigation of the behavior of fiber-reinforced concrete structural members. The studies have mainly focused on the investigation of the behaviour of concrete, including the changes that occur. Concrete undergoes several changes caused by the shrinkage or the creeping effect and therefore forms strong impacts on the long-term behaviour of concrete. The factors, such as the tensile stresses and creep effect, are widely covered in the studies. When the tensile stress exceeds the low tensile strength of the concrete, it undergoes cracking, which has a negative impact on engineering structures.
The concepts are widely applied in the field of engineering, especially in the design of the concrete structures (Ma et al, 2013 p 365). For instance, the creep is related to the increase in the strain under sustained stress, while the shrinkage effect of the concrete takes place due to loss of water (Zhu et al, 2017 p 367). The shrinkage effect is associated with the cement hydration reaction and water evaporation. The properties are critical in investigating the behavior of the concrete, which has significant applications in construction activities.
The past studies outline the different types of concrete made of different materials and their applications in the field of engineering. One such type of concrete drawn from the literature is the lightweight aggregate concrete, which wildly used in the field of construction due to its advantages. According to Bilodeau, Kodur, and Hoff (2004), the advantages of such materials include low density, high specific density, high durability, and superior thermal insulation. The high-performance polypropylene (HPPF) is also used in strengthening and ensuring the toughness of the material. Additionally, the flexural toughness is another property that guides the performance of the concrete materials. The flexural characteristics determine the application of different concrete materials.
The materials for reinforcing concrete have been advancing due to the change in technology. The advancements are aimed at enhancing the durability, the higher strength to weight ratio, and the low coefficient of thermal conductivity. For instance, the use of lightweight aggregates in combination with the reinforcing fibres has been introduced in improving the mechanical properties of the materials (Fike and Kodur, 2011 p 2878). The application of the fibre reinforced lightweight concrete has been reported in several studies.
On the other hand, different factors that affect mechanical properties are also discussed. One of the factors investigated is temperature, whereby studies show that the fibre materials may be damaged due to high temperatures, and the effect is commonly evident in the high strength concrete (Colombo, Di Prisco and Felicetti, 2010 p 490). Therefore some materials such as pozzolanic are proposed by the researchers as a substitute to the Portland cement for enhancing the strength and durability of concrete (Khodair & Raza, 2017 p 246). The other materials, such as metakaolin, are used in improving the fire resistance of the concrete materials. An increase in temperature decreases the compression strength, the density, and thermal conductivity as well as thermal diffusivity of the concrete (Poon, Azhar, Anson and Wong, 2001 p 1292). The changes are examined by the variation of temperature.
Literature Review
Oberpichler (1995) performed an anchor test program for investigating the maximum shear forces and shear displacement of anchors as well as the leak-lightness of the cooling pipes. The researchers employed the use of test parameters, including 20°, 70°, 120°, and 250°C. The testing process was done on the specimens consisted of the square concrete blocks of dimensions 280 mm x 280mm x 360 mm, including the steel-fibre reinforced concrete that consisted of 1.0 vol. % of the steel fibres. The results of the tests revealed the advantages, which include low tensile strength and low deformation capability. Additionally, the study demonstrated that the strength of the concrete and steel could not decrease even at the temperatures of 250°C. The tests on the steel-fibre reinforced concrete showed the ultimate displacement of the same magnitude that suggests that the failure through the compression strain occurred in the normal concrete. In general, the experiment was performed to investigate the behavior of the anchor systems that consisted of the cooling pipes and linear plate embedded in steel-fibre reinforced concrete in relation to high temperature. The behavior was monitored using the load-displacement curves and compared with those obtained from the previous tests. The advantages of such materials are such that they have a capability of sustaining high temperature as high as 250°C
A study by Nanni (1991) concentrated on the investigation of fatigue behavior in concrete. The testing and measurement process was performed by using the AST C-143 standards. Several types of fibres were used in the experiment and confined together in a matrix. In the research, testing was carried out by strict adherence to the ASTMC-1018 standard by the use of a hydraulic type of the machine in stroke control, which was used in static tests while the load control was utilized in the fatigue tests. The other parameters applied in the tests were the 20 Hz sinusoidal cycles, which were used mainly in the testing of fatigue of steel-fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC). Both the static and fatigue split-tension were performed on the cylinders and cubes, including the load patterns for the investigation of flexure. The methodology was analyzed by the finite element method. The fatigue characteristics of the plain concrete were summarized by the use of S-N curves. Additionally, the static properties of the SFRC were described by the use of parameters such as the volume fraction, aspect ratio, and the bond efficiency coefficient. Nanni (1991) concluded that the fibre factor is an important parameter used in describing the SFRC for use in design purposes. The disadvantage of the SFRC material is that they can be affected by fatigue, especially at high temperatures.
Rossi (1992) researched on the mechanical behavior of the metal-fibre reinforced concretes (MFRCs). The research examined the properties of the materials based on two scales, which are the materials and the structure. The intrinsic mechanical behavior of the material is observed before the sage of crack localization. Therefore MFRCs can be used in the reinforced or prestressed concrete structure; hence the tensile strength and compressive are less as compared to the conventional concrete. The concepts of MFRCs were investigated for the approach of investigation for application in the industrial processes by considering the specific properties. The MFRCs that is composed of the amorphous iron fibres have strong mechanical strong both tension and compression. The material is advantageous when the direction of casting, as well as cracking, is parallel, while its disadvantage is that it induces a cracking that is perpendicular to the casting direction. Additionally, the tensile and compressive strength of the MFRCs are less as compared to those of concrete without the metal fibres. The relationship becomes a disadvantage of the materials. According to Rossi (1992), the presence of the metal fibres to the cement material does not entirely improve the intrinsic ductility of the materials.
Huang and Zhao (1995) conducted an experiment in investigating the properties of steel fibre reinforced concrete has contains the larger coarse aggregate. The experiment was performed in two parts, which were the utilization of the static experimental program in investigating the size of the aggregate on the concrete properties and the effect of the steel fibre. The testing method methods involved the compressive, tensile, and flexural tests (Huang and Zhao, 1995 p 200). The research also used the hydraulic methods in testing both the fatigue tests and the flexural static. The results showed that the steel fibres had high flexural fatigue strength of the concrete. The research revealed that the steel fibres can be used in reinforcing the fine stone concrete, and can also be used in the process of reinforcing the concrete that contains large aggregate, but the reinforcement process is dependent on the size of the steel fibres (Huang and Zhao, 1995 p 206) The materials with large aggregate or larger crushed stone demonstrated good fatigue performance, and therefore effective for application in industrial processes. The fatigue strength is also high in the materials containing larger crushed concrete. According to Chenkui and Guofan (1995), the equation of prediction is applicable in the investigation of the flexural fatigue strength.
Torrenti and Djebri (1995) investigated the behavior of the steel fibre reinforced when subjected by the biaxial compression loads. The research demonstrates the understanding of the mechanical behavior of metal fibre concretes (MFCs) by the use of biaxial stresses. The process of testing the MFCs involves the biaxial press to be large enough to obtain the samples. The use of biaxial tests provided a basis for quantifying the effect of fibre on the mode of cracking as well as on the deformability of the material. The effect of fibre is such that it increases the ductility of a material that is evident through the use of the biaxial loads (Caballero-Morrison, 2012 p 175). Additionally, the non-linearly of strains is evident, especially in the unloaded direction. Moreover, the influence of fibre also determines the modes of failure of the materials, such as the failure by shear bands, and the splitting failure (Ding and Kusterle, 2000 p 1578). The coupling between the biaxial loading and the fibres causes substantial strength gain. Therefore the research demonstrates the advantages of the metal fibre concretes in terms of the increase in strength as well as the increase in the ductility.
In another study Meda, Minelli, Plizzari and Riva (2005), examined the shear behavior of the high strength concrete (HSC). The tests were performed on the load by the use of monotonically increasing displacement until the attainment of the ultimate load. The result of the shear tests of the experiment was presented on the full scale prestressed. The researchers demonstrated the comparison between the transverse reinforcement and volume of fractions for the investigation of the contribution of the shear reinforcement. Additionally, the experiment aimed to investigate the possibility where the minimum shear reinforcement could be substituted with the steel fibres. The HSC offers an advantage because they are able to resist the effect of shear, especially at midspan, where a minimum shear is recommended. According to Meda, Minelli, Plizzari and Riva (2005), the beams with the steel fibre reinforced only showed more post cracking behavior as compared to the beams with the minimum amount of transverse reinforcement. The relationship forms the background of deciding on which type of beams for use in the construction process.
A study by Barros, Cunha, Ribeiro and Antunes (2005), focused on the investigation of the post-cracking behaviour of steel fibre reinforced concrete basing on the use of the RILEM TC as opposed to the ASTM 1018 standards. The research outlined the assessment of the cracking behaviour for the SFRC in accordance with the recommendations of RILEM TC 162-TDF. The parameters, such as the strength parameter and the residual flexural tensile strength parameter, were extracted and calculated. Additionally, the σ-Ԑ model was employed to estimate the cracking predictions; the method is useful in evaluating the cracking strategies based on the model.
The research by Vaitkevičius and colleagues (2016) touched on ultra-high performance fibre reinforced concrete (UHPC) and its mechanical properties. UHPC materials have advantages as well as disadvantages. The UHPC materials are expensive, lack the appropriate standards, challenging mixing process, very brittle failure, as well as they, have a high autogenous shortage. On the other hand, the materials have advantages such as they are strong, long-lasting materials and also contain advanced properties. The materials offer high strength and durability that is applicable for industrial works such as for the construction of high span bridges, high rise buildings. The advancement of Design has increased the need for UHPC materials.
Vaitkevičius and colleagues (2016) established two methods, which include the specific surface and particle size distribution that is accomplished by the use of EN 196-6:2010 standards and the mixing sample preparation and curing. The research was aimed at the preparation of the UHPC that is made of advanced properties by the use of 8 different compositions. According to Vaitkevičius and colleagues (2016) the main properties of the materials were characterized by the flexural and the compressive strength. Additionally, the property of the resistance to frost damage was associated with the salt-scaling test method by the use of 3% NaCl solution. The glass powder has a positive effect on the microstructure improvement of UHPC. Also, glass power increases the compressive strength of the UHPC material.
According to Li, Wu, and Liu (2018), the steel wire mesh, steel fibre, and ultra-high-performance polyethylene fibre. The different types of steel-reinforced materials are chosen because of the advancement in the mixture of concrete, with more concern on high strength concrete with low porosity. Li, Wu, and Liu (2018), recognizes the need for incorporation of such materials, especially in improving the strength of the buildings. The steel reinforcement has been associated with several disadvantages, such as the introduction of cracking on the concrete even under the service loads. The ultra-high-strength materials are most effective because of the less coarse aggregate used, and the achievement of the homogeneous microstructure.
Therefore, the stud by Li, Wu, and Liu (2018) propose the use of steel mesh as a substitute to steel material, which can be used in reinforcing the high strength concrete materials, also known as the UHPC, through the use of less no coarse aggregate at all. The steel mesh is the most cost-effective solution for reinforcing the high strength concrete as compared to micro steel fibres. Additionally, the sheer capacity of the welded wire meshes is more superior as compared to the steel fibres, and they have a good scabbing resistance. The steel wire mesh materials reinforced in UHPC can also disperse the stress induced by the blast and therefore causing less stress damage.
According to Li, Wu, and Liu (2018), the concrete materials with UHMWPE fibre reinforcement had a significant influence on the tensile performance of the concrete, including the increase in the tensile strength as well as the energy absorption capacity. However, the addition of UHMWPE on the materials had no significant impact on the compressive strength. On the other hand, the two-dimensional steel wire mesh reinforcement is more effective, especially in enhancing the flexural resistance of the concrete because of the elimination of coarse aggregation. However, the steel wire mesh may fail under shear rather than the energy absorbing flexure mode. Additionally, the hybrid steel fibre and the steel wire mesh can be used in enhancing the ductile material behaviour.
The research by Figeys, Schueremans, Van Gemert, and Brosens (2008) concentrated on the use of the steel cord reinforcement polymer (SCRP) in concrete materials, which is the combination of the carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CFRP) and the steel plates. The combination of the steel plates and CFRP has an important application in the epoxy bonded external reinforcement. The steel plates have high stiffness and less costly as compared to the CFRP materials. Additionally, the CFRP materials are more flexible as compared to the steel plates, and they are stronger as compared to standard steel and especially for the application in longer lengths. However, the materials have some drawbacks, which include the high cost and high brittleness (Boulekbache et al, 2012 p 14). The large safety factors are necessary for the utilization of the materials. On the other, the steel plates have a high density, which makes them less applicable in the construction process. The steel plates are mainly used in solving the deformation and deflection issues in the industry, while the CFRP is used in the strengthening of the concrete plates.
According to Figeys, Schueremans, Van Gemert, and Brosens (2008), the SCRP is an advanced type of material that combines the steel plates and CFRP. The behaviour of such materials is such that they offer high flexibility, bond strength, and impregnation. The impregnation is evident in the SCRP material; however, a new adhesive is critical for the improvement of the impregnation for the onsite materials. According to the experiment performed, the new type of material behaved strongly and stiffer, which are critical properties used in the design process.
In another study, Sivakumar and Santhanam (2007) outlined the metallic and the non-metallic fibres as materials used in the reinforcement of concrete. The Assessment of the hybrid fibres at different volumes were accomplished in the study for obtaining the post-peak behaviour of high strength concrete. The study revealed that a combination of hybrid fibres such as steel and polypropylene have high performance as compared to the mono-steel fibre concrete. The hybrid combination provides a greater strength on the concrete material. On the other hand, a combination of the glass fibres with steel has the worse property in terms of the toughness of the material and has less application due to short lengths. Additionally, the process of increasing the fibre availability in the hybrid systems, in addition to the non-metallic fibres increases the strengths and flexural properties of the concrete (Jones, Austin, and Robins, 2008 p 462). The non-metallic materials have the ability to sustain high crack widths that result in large deflections, producing high performance.
The study by Li and company (2017) compares different materials, which include the high-performance polypropylene (HPPLWC), the lightweight aggregate concrete, and steel fibre reinforced lightweight aggregate concrete (SFLWC). The properties of the different types of materials are investigated according to the ASTM C1609 standards. According to Li and company (2017), the addition of the SFs and HPPFs has no significant effect on enhancing the compression strength of the LWCs. However, the SFs are more effective as compared to the HPPFs in terms of improving the compressive strength of the LWCs. The application of ASTM C1609 and the JSCE SF-4 standards revealed the flexural toughness of different materials. According to Li and colleagues (2017), SFs have better performance in terms of flexural strength and the residual strength as compared to the HPFFs. Additionally, the SFs displayed better performance on the pre-peak behaviour as compared to the post-peak behaviour. The research demonstrates how different concrete, reinforced materials respond to different conditions.
Wu, Yang, Wei, and Liu (2019), investigated the properties of the microstructure aggregate concrete by considering the materials with or without the fibres. The research examines the mechanical properties of lightweight concrete. The study examined nine different mixtures of the materials. Both types of materials demonstrated high compression strength according to the measurements carried out between 16% and 76% in relation to the plain concrete. On the other hand, the modulus of elasticity in relation to Poisson’s ratio had no significant effect on the materials. Additionally, the flexural behaviour for all the mixtures resulted in the high values following the measurements carried from 47% to 110%. Both the flexural strength and the compressive strength are dependent on the factor Vf*(1/d).
The post- cracking behaviour is more evident in the fibre type than without fibre. On the other hand, the post-cracking behaviour demonstrated similar post-crack behaviour in relation to the opposite-hooked fibres. This study is related to a similar research conducted by Badogiannis, Christidis, and Tzanetatos (2019) on the investigation of the mechanical properties of the fibre reinforced lightweight concrete by the use of the steel fibres (SF). Tests performed to establish the properties include the typical compression and the three-point bending tests. The research revealed that the lightweight material exhibited strong compression strength from the measurement carried out at the percentage of 16% to 76%. The compression strength of the polypropylene and steel is dependent on the Vf(1/d) factor.
The factors that affect the mechanical properties of concrete have been demonstrated in several studies. Madandoust, Ranjbar, Ghavidel, and Shahabi (2015) investigated the properties of the steel fibre reinforced-compacting concrete (SRSCC) which is used in several structural applications. The study demonstrated that the content of the concrete materials such as the cement, steel fibre, and the maximum nominal aggregate size, as well as the age of the concrete, contributes to the properties of SFRSCC. The steel fibres decrease the performance of SCC, especially when high fibre volume is added. The addition of fibres reduces the passing ability and, at the same time, increases the possibility of blockage. On the other hand, the compression strength of the concrete material increases slightly with an increase in aggregate size.
Research by Seleem, Rashad, and Elsokary (2011) concentrated on the investigation of the effect of temperature on the psycho-mechanical properties of the concrete. Concrete offers high stability but can be subjected to damage over high temperatures. The test results from the study showed that the efficiency of all the pozzolanas regarding the efficiency is evident as an addition factor. The effect caused an increase in the strength at different at 75%, 45%, 27% and 40% for the addition of the silica fume, metakaolin, fly ash and ground granulated slag (GGBS) respectively (Seleem, Rashad and Elsokary, 2011 p 1017). The strength of the concrete material varies according to the temperature change. For instance, at 200°C, the compressive strength increases over the 28-day, while at 400 °C the compressive strengths of all pozzolana-concrete are slightly affected by the increase in temperature (Seleem, Rashad and Elsokary, 2011 p 1017). At a high temperature of 600°C, the pozzolana is able to retain their compressive strength, while the temperature of 800°C causes the reduction of the strength of all the mixes. Therefore, the temperature is one of the factors that affect the mechanical properties of the concrete.
The study by Hawreen and Bogas (2019) outlined the mechanical properties of the concrete reinforced with different types of carbon nanotubes (CNTs). The research outlines the different types of nanotubes used in concrete and the effect of the long-term creek as well as shrinkage on the concrete materials. The different CNTs have a different effect on the mechanical property of the concrete and specifically on the shrinkage and creep behaviour. The efficiency, density, and air content of the concrete are significantly affected by the use of small amount of CNTs, while an increase in the number of CNTs at about 0.5% increases the slump and air content of the concrete material. The CNTs increases the compressive strength of the material up to 12%. The concrete with different types of CNTs has different properties due to the differences in the aspect ratio of the CNTs (Hawreen and Bogas, 2019 p 80). The modulus elasticity of the concrete is not affected by the improved quality of the cement pastes. The incorporation of CNTs reduces the early as well as long-term shrinkage of the concrete by 54% as well as 15%, respectively (Hawreen and Bogas, 2019 p 80). The use of different CNTs has a different effect on the long-term behaviour of the concrete, the aggregate results in less reduction of the shrinkage in concrete material. Similarly, the use of CNTs on concrete reduces the long term creep by 17-18% and, therefore effective for application in the construction process.
Methodology
The methodology of the research involves the analysis of the structural member model by the use of ANSYS and LS-DYNA software. The methodology has been used in several studies in modelling processes. Xu, Hao, and (2012) employed the use of ANSYS software for the modelling process of the fibre reinforced concrete under the application of the compressive loading. The behaviour such as the failure mechanisms, is investigated through the simulation process by the use of ANSYS. On the other hand, the LS-DYNA is commonly applied in the prediction processes; for instance, the prediction of the scabbing damage of the slabs. The analysis requires the creation of the model by following the procedural steps. For instance, the calculation of the quantity of fibres in relation to volume and then followed by the development of the model and the application of the ANSYS.
Peng and company (2019), utilized the geometrical model in the investigation of the in the analysis of the ultra-high performance by the use of ANSYS /LS-DYNA software. The hydrocode LS-DYNA software is used in providing a different variety of material models for solving different problems in concrete material. The factors such as tensile strength and shear strength are well established through the modelling process.
In conclusion, the researchers are based on the different types of materials used in steel fibre reinforced concrete. In the studies, the properties of the materials are outlined, which include, the creeping, sheer, compression strength, and ductility. The materials that offer high strength and toughness are expensive as compared to those with less strength. Temperature emerged as one of the factors that affected the strength of concrete materials. The materials for concrete reinforcement continue to advance and expected to gain importance in the future.
References
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