DQ1
Independent variables are those that can stand on their own, as the name implies. They are unaffected by other variables you are attempting to measure, such as one’s age, gender identity, or ethnicity. Dependent variables are those that are affected by other variables that are measured. These are expected to change as a result of independent variable manipulation, such as growth.
Extraneous variables are variables that you are not investigating but that may have an impact on the outcomes of your research because they are unknown or unexpected. They can lead to incorrect conclusions about the relationship between independent and dependent variables if left uncontrolled. They can be natural characteristics of the participants or environmental features such as lighting or noise. Extraneous variables, on the other hand, can be controlled through research design or statistical procedures.
Extraneous variables are divided into four categories: situational, participant, experimenter effects, and demand characteristics, which are all controlled in different ways. Standardized procedures are used to ensure that the conditions are the same for all participants, and participant variables are controlled through random allocation to the independent variable’s conditions.
For the experimenter, they may unconsciously convey bias, which affects the outcomes. This can be done by providing unintentional cues on how to behave or what to expect. As the demand characteristics, these are clues that convey to the participants the purpose of the research, which in turn changes the behavior of the participants to conform to the study’s expectations. Experimenters should try to minimize demand characteristics by keeping the environment as natural as possible, using standardized procedures, and, if possible, using different researchers to see if they get the same results.
References
S.A. McLeod (2019). Unwanted Variable Simply put, psychology.
www.simplypsychology.org/extraneous-variable.html
M. Schmidt. Measurement, Statistics, and Appraisal. Understanding Best Practice Methods in Nursing Research GCU Chapter 4
https://lc.gcumedia.com/nrs433v/nursing-research-understanding-methods-for-best-practice/v1.1/#/Chapter/4 s——
The independent variable, according to Schmidt (2018), is “the experimental or predictor variable.” It is manipulated in the research to observe the effect on the dependent variable as “the outcome variable” versus the dependent variable as “the dependent variable.” It changes values in response to the independent variable.” Extraneous variables are unintentional but may influence experiment results. Matching is a method for controlling extraneous variables. Matching is used to achieve balance among control groups (Pourhoseingholi et al, 2012), such as selecting subjects from a specific control group who are all females in their 60s. Restriction is another method for controlling extraneous variables. “Restriction eliminates variation in the confounder (for example, if an investigator only selects subjects of the same age or same sex, the study will eliminate confounding by sex or age group),” write Pourhoseingholi et al (2012).
M. Pourhoseingholi, A. Baghestani, and M. Vahedi (2012). How to use statistical analysis to control for confounding effects. 5(2), 79-83. Gastroenterology and hepatology from bed to bench.
M. Schmidt (2018). Appraisal, measurement, and statistics Understanding Methods for Best Practice in Nursing Research
DQ2
—
Levels of evidence are a hierarchical system of categorizing evidence that is critical for evidence-based medicine.
(2011) (Burns, Rohrich, and Chung) The best way to visualize these levels of evidence is through a pyramid, with systematic reviews at the top representing the highest level of evidence (best quality) and being the least common. As one descends the pyramid, one will notice that the quantity of evidence increases while the quality decreases.
Evidence levels:
1. Meta-analysis or systematic reviews (top of the pyramid). Systematic review researchers ask a specific clinical question and focus on answering that question based on a thorough literature review that eliminates poorly done studies. 2020 (Walden University) These reviews can be used for any type of clinical practice change.
2. Critically appraised topics include brief systematic reviews of several research studies. This type of evidence can be used to create a hospital protocol.
3. Critically evaluated individual articles containing research study synopses. Well-designed quasi-experimental studies provide evidence. It can also be used to create hospital protocols.
4. Randomized control trials, in which patients are randomly assigned to one of two groups: control or experimental. Researchers then closely monitor these groups for a specific outcome. This type of evidence can be used to put a specific nursing intervention into action.
5. Cohort study in which two distinct cohorts are studied, one receiving a specific treatment and the other not. The two are then compared to reach a conclusion. This type of evidence could lead to a modification of a specific treatment or medication.
6. A case-control study compares patients who had the same outcome to those who did not and attempts to determine whether the patients who did not have the same outcome had the same exposure. This type of evidence can be used to compare one skin care product to another.
7. Background information/expert opinion includes textbooks, encyclopedias, and handbooks, or literature that takes years to publish and includes expert committee opinions. (NVCC, 2020) This type of evidence can be used to provide information for nursing education.
References
P. B. Burns, R. J. Rohrich, and K. C. Chung (2011). Evidence levels and their role in evidence-based medicine 128(1), pp. 305-310 in Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. https://doi.org/10.1097/PRS.0b013e318219c171
Northern Virginia Community College (NVCC) (2020). Nursing Evidence-Based Practice Evidence Levels. https://libguides.nvcc.edu/c.php?g=361218&p=2439383 retrieved
University of Walden (2020). Research on Evidence-Based Practice. Evidence Levels Pyramid. Retrieved from https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/library/healthevidence/evidencepyramid.html.
To determine the effects of evidence, various levels of research can be used. The degree and level at which healthcare professionals evaluate evidence is determined by their level of knowledge. The first level evaluates evidence from a systematic review or meta-analysis of all RCTs as level one is the highest level of evidence. Evidence-based research, also known as metascience, is the study of science using scientific methodology with the goal of improving the quality and efficiency of the research process (Ioannidis, 2020). Level 2 evidence is gathered through well-designed RCTs. Level 3 evidence is gathered through controlled trials without randomization. Level 4 studies are case control or cohort studies, while level 5 studies are systematic reviews of descriptive and qualitative studies. Level 6 evidence is evidence gathered through a single descriptive or qualitative study. Finally, when this is determined by evidence from expert opinion, it is considered to be at the lowest level of evidence, level 7. It is critical that researchers understand the different levels when reviewing information for the study because this will help them prioritize the information and guide them when interpreting the results. This informs the reader about the level of evidence in the research, but it does not always guarantee the quality of the research (Burns et al., 2011).
Reference
J. P. Loannidis (2020). Meta-research is the process of evaluating and improving research methods and practices. Crisis of Democracy – Crisis of Science? 22, 101-118. https://doi.org/10.7767/9783205233008.101
P. B. Burns, R. J. Rohrich, and K. C. Chung (2011, July). Evidence Levels and Their Role in Evidence-Based Medicine 128(1), pp. 305-310 in Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. https://doi.org/10.1097/prs.0b013e318219c171
