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Female Genital Mutilation
According to the definition of the World Health Organization (WHO), Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), also known as female genital cutting and female circumcision, means partial or complete non-therapeutic removal or injury of each of the external female genitals for religious or cultural reasons (utz-billing & Kentenich 225). FGM is an injury, physical and mental harm towards women and girls. Female Genital Mutilation has existed for over two thousand years, and over 125 million women and girls have experienced FGM in about 30 countries (Wilson 2013). It happens to 2 million girls every year (utz-billing & Kentenich 226). FGM is performed mainly in Africa. (utz-billing & Kentenich 226).
A narrative coming from the article from Bulletin of the World Health Organization describes a real story, “I was just seven years old when I was cut,” said Leyla Hussein, a British woman of Somali origin. “The first thing I hears was my sister screaming. Then it was my turn. Four women held me down while they cut my clitoris. I felt every single cut. The pain was so intense – I blacked out.” (Shetty,Priya 6).
Instruments that are used to execute FGM are unsterilized knives, razors, scalpels, pieces of broken glass, and so forth, or sterilized instruments under medical conditions (utz-billing & Kentenich 226). The ages of girls/women when they undergo circumcision differ regionally (utz-billing & Kentenich 225). In Ethiopia and Nigeria, 7- to 8-day-old babies are mutilated. In Somalia, Sudan and Egypt, girls, between 5 and 10 years old, experience circumcision. In some regions in East Africa, women undergo the circumcision during the wedding night, in some regions in West Africa during their first pregnancy (utz-billing & Kentenich 225).
There are four types of FGM in practice. Type one (clitoridectomy) means “removal of the clitoral foreskin”; type two (excision) stands for “removal of the clitoris with partial or total excision of the labia minor”; type three (infibulation) stands for “removal of the clitoris and the labia minora and majora”; other types such as “pricking, piercing of clitoris or vulva, scraping of the vagina”, and so forth, are classified as type four (utz-billing & Kentenich 226).
Many of women and girls who have undergone some forms of FGM suffer severe mental, physical and social consequences. Women will suffer different types of physical consequences of FGM, such as “bleeding, wound infections, sepsis, shock, micturition problems, fractures, and so forth, as well as undertaking chronic physical problems like “anemia, infections of the urinary tract, incontinence, infertility, pain, menstruation problems, dyspareunia, and so on (utz-billing & Kentenich 225). Mental consequences of women after undergoing FGM include the feelings of “incompleteness, fear, inferiority and suppression” that have a great impact on the whole life of women (utz-billing & Kentenich 227). FGM also causes sexual problems such as loss of sexual desire caused by dyspareunia and reduced or no ability to have an orgasm are confirmed (utz-billing & Kentenich 227).
According to the record from Utz-billing and Kentenich, women have some symptoms of “chronic irritability and nightmares’, and woman also have a higher risk for “psychiatric diseases” such as “depressions, psychosis, neurosis and psychosomatic diseases” (utz-billing & Kentenich 227). Ground on the interview study done by 47 women in Senegal, over 90 % of patients count FGM as a traumatic experience and depict feelings of “helplessness, fear, horror and severe pain”; 78% did not expect the intervention; nearly 80% had “severe fear or affective disorders” after FGM (utz-billing & Kentenich 227).
FGM is deeply rooted in the tradition and culture of a society (utz-billing & Kentenich 225); in some cultures or societies, FGM is being performed since the mists of time. Female Genital Cutting is a social norm, which means that men and women often support FGM without question since it is a conventional practice that has occurred in communities from generations to generations (orchid project website).
FGM serves the encouragement of the patriarchal family system and can be an instrument for birth control (utz-billing & Kentenich 226). FGM is considered as being closely connected with cleanliness, virginity, healthiness, beauty and morality (orchid project website). In some societies, the mutilated genital is a symbol of feminity, of transition from girl to woman and of beauty (utz-billing & Kentenich 226).
In some communities, the girl who does not experience circumcision is considered as “unclean and sexually promiscuous”(orchid project website). On the other side, many communities believe that a girl needs to be cut in order to marry well; even though mothers do not want their daughters to be mutilated because of her own painful experience, she is less likely to quit the practice as a result of “social sanctions in place” (orchid project website). In other words, the girls who are cut will have a good marriage because the goal is to guarantee moral behavior and faithfulness of women to their husband, and it also promotes purity and enhances fertility (utz-billing & Kentenich 226). On this basis, FGM also serves for protection of the woman from suspicions and disgrace (utz-billing & Kentenich 226), and the girls will be thought to be cleaner, more fertile and will be a virgin until her wedding night (orchid project website).
In addition, economic reasons play an important role in practicing FGM. “Parents get money for the pride proportionally to the degree of the operation” (utz-billing & Kentenich 226). Women who experienced FGM have good incomes and have a high social status (utz-billing & Kentenich 226).
Based on the research which a total of 500 Nigerian women answered the reasons for FGM done by utz-billing & Kentenich, we could know that 95% response that FGM is executed for cultural and traditional reasons; 49% said that FGM helps to prevent promiscuity; 18% answered that not mutilated vulva is ugly; 11% believed that FGM prevents the death of male newborns; 9% claimed that the reason to perform FGM is due to pressure of relatives; 6% reported religious reasons (utz-billing & Kentenich 226).
Concerning human rights, none of the cultural, religious, or social reasons for the performance of FGM could be accepted, since FGM has no health benefits and always leave women with lifelong physical and emotional trauma, and FGM objects women the right of freedom from bodily detriment.
FGM is already condemned by many international organizations; the fight to end FGM is now global, with international agencies such as WHO, the World Medical Association, the UNESCO, United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICER), and so forth (utz-billing & Kentenich 228), and has strong support from governments. Looking back to history, international pressure to end FGM has been aggrandizing since 1997, when the WHO, UNICEF and UNFPA issued a joint statement calling on governments to ban the practice (Shetty,Priya 6). The commitment was renewed in 2008 and, in 2012, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution to enhance efforts towards the elimination of FGM (Shetty,Priya 6). Great Britain, Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Belgium have specific laws that ban FGM (utz-billing & Kentenich 228). Africa, Egypt, Benin, Burkina Faso, Djibouti, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bisson, Kenya, Niger, Senegal, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda and the Central African Republic are in the course of eliminating the practice of FGM with specific laws (utz-billing & Kentenich 228). Canada, USA, New Zealand and Australia also have laws against FGM (utz-billing & Kentenich 228). For instance, in Germany, FGM is regarded as a simple, dangerous, serious bodily injury, manslaughter, or maltreatment of wards; offenders who execute FGM can be sentenced to 15-year imprisonment (utz-billing & Kentenich 228).
Throughout history, the very first international seminar about FGM was held in 1979, “recommending the adoption of clear national policies, establishment of national commissions, intensification of general public awareness, and TBA education” (Wilson 27). After several decades of doing cross-agency evaluated studies, papers, and articles recommending methods to eliminate FGM, and holding many conferences, six key factors for waiving FGM have become well recognized by NGOs and government bodies as good practice. These six key elements are “a non-coercive, non-judgmental human rights approach”, “community awareness raising of the harmfulness of the practice”, “the decision to abandon needs to be collective”, “requirement of community public affirmation of abandonment”, “ intercommunity diffusion of the decision”, and “a supportive, change-enabling environment” (Wilson 27).
Based on the six key factors mentioned above, ascertaining the most effective and suitable strategies for eliminating FGM has become a controversial issue referring to moral, disease, and legal models (Wilson 27). Furthermore, according to Diop, in order to effectively end FGM, “human rights-based education programs should be continued, legislation against FGM should be enforced and funding both locally and nationally for initiatives to end FGM should be increased” (Priya Shetty 7).
Adopting a commonly stands, some argue that practicing FGM should be condemned and punished by legislation; however, formal legislation is considered as a poor instrument in terms of cultural change (Wilson 27). Moreover, the legislative approach does not work effectively. The situation is that several sovereign states have legislation which outlaw the practice of FGM, either as a specific criminal act or as an act of bodily hard or injury, and many states have an extraterritoriality clause which makes it unlawful for their citizens to go abroad to let FGM practice (Brown, Katherine, David Beecham, and Hazel Barrett 3). UK’s Female Genital Mutilation Act (2003) only applies to those who have permanent residency rights, so people having temporary residency visas, such as students, undocumented migrants and asylum seekers, and so forth, are uncommitted (Brown, Katherine, David Beecham, and Hazel Barrett 3). Therefore, as Diop said, legislation against FGM should be tougher and be enforced so that FGM can be effectively solved. In other words, what governments should do is to implement appropriate legislation and policies to keep girls from being taken overseas and undergone the circumcision.
Simple education campaigns that are designed to impart knowledge on the disadvantageous health outcomes of FGM can be problematic as well, although these education campaigns do a little work (Wilson 27). Women in some countries are not given the same educational opportunities as men. In other words, women have very little power; if they want to end the cycle of mutilation, they would be left behind and would be in trouble (Emily Deruy News). Since FGM is deeply rooted in the tradition and culture of a society, women fear that if they do not make their girls cut, these girls would not be good for marriage, which would make their lives be full of exclusion and poverty in many places (Emily Deruy News).
Advocating education can be a possible solution for ending FGM. Education could lead women to the labor market, which would have an impact on weakening traditional family structures. School should be playing an important part in raising awareness of FGM. An education program adopted by every school can provide a breakthrough in cultural attitudes (Nursing Standard 35). School can also impart knowledge to girls from people from different cultures and from mentors who do not support FGM; in the meanwhile, girls may be less likely to continue the cycle of mutilation (Emily Deruy News). Not only women and girls should be educated, but also men and boys should be educated. Educating men and boys about the harm and risk of FGM is considerable. One report released by UNICEF presents data demonstrating that in many countries where FGM takes place “most women and men think the practice should end” (Priya Shetty 6). But the problem is that even though men want the FGM to end but they have to follow it because of social reasons (Emily Deruy News). On this point, the status of women should be increased via education so that women could have abilities to fight for themselves; however, increasing the status of women is also a complex and deep problem involving culture, societies, and tradition.
Public declaration for ending FGM could be a possible solution. According to David Adam, “by spreading the message of abandonment along their social networks, neighboring communities are introduced to the idea of abandonment, often reducing or even removing resistance to the idea” (Priya Shetty 7). This solution works effectively. For example, the very first public declaration took place in Senegal in 1997, and since then the number of community abandoning FGM has grown exponentially (Orchid Project website). Moreover, communities in Guinea, Somalia and the Gambia have done public declarations of abandoning practice, which is good, and other communities are declaring as well (Orchid Project website).
In addition, FGM messaging that encourages abandonment can be introduced in the social media, which could draw attention to people all over the world and let people start focusing on FGM (Orchid Project website). Also religious leaders, government officials, celebrities, and superstars can take good advantage of their influential voices in order to contribute to support FGM abandonment (Orchid Project website).
Not only NGOs and governments want to abandon FGM, but also churches in Kenya are uniting in effort to end female genital mutilation. The Kenyan bishops and other faith groups are combined together to form a committee to help to end the practice of Female Genital Mutilation (National Catholic Reporter 6). Since “the church is interested in promoting values and cultures that will enhance human life”, what they have done is to sign the national plan for the clergy to outlaw the execution of FGM, and they consider FGM as a “retrogressive” practice which “degrades a woman’s life”(National Catholic Reporter 6). So the churches in Kenya think that FGM must be stopped. In short, compared to what NGOs and governments have done, churches do not have great influence on ending FGM, but churches play a helpful role in Helping to end FGM.
Overall, those people and organizations that do not support FGM are always trying to find some ways to stop FGM; however, what they have done does not effectively play a part in ending practices in short term, but their efforts do work. Whereas, the progress in ending FGM is slow. On the basis of data from Priya Shetty, the rates of FGM in a few countries are decreasing. In Kenya, these rates in women aged 15- to 49- year-old fell from 38% in 1998 to 26% in 2008; in the Central African Republic, rates fell from 43% in 1994 to 24% in 2010 (Shetty,Priya 6).
After several decades of effort by every single movement of abandoning Female Genital Mutilation, according to the UNFPA/UNICEF Joint Program, 10,000 communities have abandoned Female Genital Mutilation all over the world, which is a good sign (Orchid Project website). This phenomenon occurs in the countries, such as Senegal, Mauritania, Kenya, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, and Nigeria (Orchid Project website). This data tells us that attitudes towards FGM have been changing in countries, even though it is not that obvious; however, this means even if the execution of FGM is still universal, there is a change in opinions taking place, which could help to pave the way for further action (Orchid Project website). In the light of Orchid Project website, some countries in West Africa made huge progress on FGM abandonment. For instance, over 5,500 villages have abandoned FGM in Senegal (Orchid Project website).
It is still sad to know that more than 3 million female infants and children are at risk for undergoing FGM annually (Sipsma 120). The existence of FGM gives these innocent girls and women lifetime pain and injury. I think the existence of FGM is so ridiculous, and it is also ridiculous that women and men in some regions still subject to practice because of tradition, culture, and society, even though they all think FGM should end. Good thing is that some West Africa countries, like Senegal, stop executing FGM and attitudes towards practicing FGM is changing as well. According to this current trend, I could say confidently that ending FGM is a long-term program and is just around the corner, if every single person, NGO, and government continues to work on the projects of ending FGM whole-heartedly.
Work Cited
Brown, Katherine, David Beecham, and Hazel Barrett. “The Applicability Of Behaviour Change In Intervention Programmes Targeted At Ending Female Genital Mutilation In The EU: Integrating Social Cognitive And Community Level Approaches.” Obstetrics & Gynecology International (2013): 1-12. Academic Search Premier. Web. 12 Dec. 2014.
“Churches Unite In Effort To End Female Genital Mutilation.” National Catholic Reporter 39.26 (2003): 6. Academic Search Premier. Web. 12 Dec. 2014.
Emily Deruy, “How Realistic Are the New ‘Solutions’ to the Female Genital Mutilation Epidemic?” ABC News (2013). <http://abcnews.go.com/ABC_Univision/News/realistic-solutions-female-genital-mutilation/story?id=19750777&singlePage=true> Web. 11 Dec. 2014
“Orchid Project”, <http://orchidproject.org/category/about-fgc/why-fgc-happens/>
Shetty, Priya. “Slow Progress In Ending Female Genital Mutilation.” Bulletin Of The World Health Organization 92.1 (2014): 6-7. Academic Search Premier. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.
Sipsma, Heather L., et al. “Female Genital Cutting: Current Practices And Beliefs In Western Africa.” Bulletin Of The World Health Organization 90.2 (2012): 120-127F. Academic Search Premier. Web. 12 Dec. 2014.
Utz-Billing, I., and H. Kentenich. “Female Genital Mutilation: An Injury, Physical And Mental Harm.” Journal Of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology 29.4 (2008): 225-229. Academic Search Premier. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.
Wilson, Ann-Marie. “How The Methods Used To Eliminate Foot Binding In China Can Be Employed To Eradicate Female Genital Mutilation.” Journal Of Gender Studies 22.1 (2013): 17-37. Academic Search Premier. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.
